Technical Papers - SAE Mobilus

SAE Technical Papers are written and peer-reviewed by experts in the automotive, aerospace, and commercial vehicle industries and provide the latest advances in technical research and applied technical engineering information.

Items (119,680)

A New Test Rig for Electrically Actuated Landing Gear and Brake of a Small Transport Aircraft

2025-01-0161To be published on 05/02/2025

Performing highly representative tests of aircraft equipments is a critical feature for gaining utmost confidence on their ability to perform flawlessly in flight under the entire spectrum of operating conditions. This can also contribute to accelerate the certification process of a new equipment. A research project (E-LISA) was performed in recent years, as part of the european funded Clean Sky 2 framework, with the objective of building an innovative facility for testing an electrically actuated landing gear and brake for a small air transport. The project eventually led to the development and construction of an Iron Bird able to reproduce in a realistic and comprehensive way a full variety of landing test cases consistent with certification specifications and landing histories available in the repository of the airframer. The Iron Bird that was eventually developed is a multi-functional intelligent and easy reconfigurable facility integrating hardware and software allowing to

De Martin, Andrea, Bertolino, Antonio, Jacazio, Giovanni

Innovative High-Performance Active Dampers for Effective Mitigation of Helicopter Main Rotor Vibrations

2025-01-0163To be published on 05/02/2025

Helicopter vibrations, primarily generated by the main rotor-gearbox assembly, are a major source of concern due to their impact on structural integrity, cockpit instrument durability, and crew comfort. These vibrations are mainly transmitted through the gearbox’s rigid support struts to the fuselage, leading to increased cabin noise and potential damage to critical components. This paper presents a solution for vibration mitigation which involves replacing traditional gearbox support struts with low-weight, high-performance active dampers. Developed by Elettronica Aster S.p.A., these active dampers are designed as electro-hydraulic actuators embedded within a compliant structure. The parallel nested configuration of the system enables high power densities and effective vibration control, significantly reducing the transmission of harmful vibrations to the fuselage. The comprehensive model-based design process is detailed, describing the development and use of a high-fidelity physics

Bertolino, Antonio Carlo, Sorli, Massimo, Porro, Paolo Giovanni, Galli, Claudio

Integrating for Safety – A Proposed Approach to the Integration of Propulsion Battery Systems in Hybrid Electric Aviation

2025-01-0148To be published on 05/02/2025

In the last year we have witnessed a notable surge in the designs and in the guidance material for electric and hybrid aircraft. FAA and EASA have continued to evaluate the safety of Propulsion Battery Systems (PBS), with a focus on thermal runaway containment testing. As a result, a harmonization white paper was issued to provide a certification path for Thermal Runaway (TR) Hazards, followed by an EASA certification memorandum on the acceptable approaches for the certification of Electric/Hybrid Propulsion Systems (EHPS). And just recently, an FAA Advisory Circular (draft) was issued for the “powered-lift” aircraft that feature these propulsion battery systems. In spite of the advances made by electric/hybrid aircraft manufacturers and the aviation authorities, there is still a missing piece of the puzzle. Mainly, we are still not confident in our ability to properly integrate the PBS into the EHPS architecture, in such a way where safety is never compromised, no matter the hazard

Hanna, Michael, Walker, Cherizar

Determining Worst-Case Execution Time Bounds for Multi-core Processors

2025-01-0155To be published on 05/02/2025

Demonstrating deadline adherence for real-time tasks is a common requirement in all safety norms, including ISO 26262 and DO-178C. Timing verification has to address two levels: the code level (worst-case execution time) and the scheduling level (worst-case response time). Determining which methodology is suited best depends on the characteristics of the target processor. All contemporary microprocessors try to maximize the instruction-level parallelism by sophisticated performance-enhancing features that make the execution time of a particular instruction dependent on the execution history. On multi-core systems, the execution time additionally is influenced by interference effects on shared resources caused by concurrent activities on the different cores, which are not controlled by the scheduling algorithm. In the avionics domain, the new FAA AC 20-193 / EASA AMC 20-193 guidance documents formalize predictability aspects of multi-core systems and derive adequate measures for timing

Kaestner, Daniel, Gebhard, Gernot, Huembert, Christian, Pister, Markus, Wegener, Simon, Ferdinand, Christian

Image Processing-Based Chip Detection by KIZKI Algorithm and Its Optimization

2025-01-0168To be published on 05/02/2025

The process of producing aircraft parts involves the drilling of aluminum alloys. This creates a large amount of chips, which are removed using air, but sometimes they still remain within the holes. This is checked by inspectors through visual inspection. However, the quality of human inspection varies based on skill level and fatigue. Thus, image-based inspection should be used to stabilize and further improve inspection quality. This study aims to build a framework for chip detection based on image processing. Taking into account on-site implementation, the system must have low installation and running costs and be standalone. Therefore, we adopt the KIZKI algorithm, which satisfies these conditions. KIZKI means awareness in Japanese. This is a model of human peripheral vision and saccades. It does not require training like AI and can achieve high-speed and high-performance detection using a low-performance computer. In other words, there is no need for a computer with an expensive

Iinuma, Marin, Sato, Junya, Tsuji, Masahiko

Material Adapted Method for the Repair of Curved Thermoplastic Composite Structures by Induction Welding of Patches

2025-01-0165To be published on 05/02/2025

Thermoplastic fiber-reinforced polymer composites (TPCs) are gaining importance in aviation due to their high strength, stiffness, and recyclability. To maximize their potential, efficient repair methods are needed to maintain aircraft safety and structural integrity. This article introduces a novel repair technique for damaged TPC structures, involving the insertion of a repair patch with a susceptor material. The susceptor consists of a material with high electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability and therefore reacts stronger to the electromagnetic field than the composite, even if it is carbon fiber based. This means that the thermal energy is specifically concentrated in the repair area. The susceptor can be placed on the patch surface or in the welding zone. The process begins by identifying and preparing the damaged area, followed by precise scarfing. Care is taken to ensure that the surrounding material remains intact and that an exact stepped structure is created, which

Geiger, Markus, Glaap, Anton, Schiebel, Patrick, May, David

The Why of Development Assurance

2025-01-0154To be published on 05/02/2025

In the domain of aircraft certification, Development Assurance is what some would call a useful tool to gain confidence in the development of complex systems, and what others would call a necessary evil. But what does it actually do? Why is it necessary for certification of modern aircraft? What, epistemologically, does it bring to the table? This paper aims to show why development assurance activities, at all levels from aircraft to item, close the epistemological holes created when complex systems are chosen for implementation. It will map the different sources and types of uncertainty encountered in system verification and explain how each type is dealt with within a certification context, working from simple mechanical systems up to complex and highly integrated systems using software and airborne electronic hardware and beyond. It will show that Development Assurance, far from being an arbitrary set of activities, systematically brings personal and corporate expertise to bear to

Laflin, Cory R.

Assignment Criteria for Function Allocation to Commercial Aviation System Security Domains

2025-01-0156To be published on 05/02/2025

Aircraft cabin management is characterized by operational and business processes. Both are defined as a logical sequence of activities that occur during the flight. While the operational process includes activities to ensure flight safety, such as take-off, cruise and landing, the business process activities are related to adding value to the customer, i.e. the passenger. They are to be certified by the authority as a part of the aircraft type certification. These processes are defined by the airline and are described as part of the airline’s business model. While the scope of operational processes for passenger safety within the aircraft cabin should remain as unchanged as possible, the increasing competitive pressure on airlines is leading to a constantly rising number of services in the cabin. To prevent compromising cabin safety from increased cabin crew workload during the cruise phase, there is a growing trend toward digitizing operational and business processes. The digitized

Hintze, Hartmut, Blecken, Marvin, God, Ralf, Pereira, Daniel

Enhancing Airworthiness Security: SysML-Based Approach to Modelling Security Scope Definitions

2025-01-0172To be published on 05/02/2025

Airworthiness certification of aircraft requires an Airworthiness Security Process (AWSP) to ensure safe operation under potential unauthorized interactions, particularly in the context of growing cyber threats. Regulatory authorities mandate the consideration of Intentional Unauthorized Electronic Interactions (IUEI) in the development of aircraft, airborne software, and equipment. As the industry increasingly adopts Model-Based Systems Engineering (MBSE) to accelerate development, we aim to enhance this effort by focusing on security scope definitions – a critical step within the AWSP for security risk assessment that establishes the boundaries and extent of security measures. However, our findings indicate that, despite the increasing use of model-based tools in development, these security scope definitions often remain either document-based or, when modeled, are presented at overly abstract levels, both of which limit their utility. Furthermore, we found that these definitions

Hechelmann, Adrian, Mannchen, Thomas

Approach to Optimize the Airplane Boarding Process by using Image Recognition and Stochastic Simulation to Predict Overhead Bin Fill Levels

2025-01-0164To be published on 05/02/2025

In single-aisle aircraft, the available storage space for carry-on baggage is inherently limited. When the aircraft is fully booked, this often results in insufficient overhead bin space, necessitating last-minute gate-checking of carry-on items, which delays the boarding process and reduces operational efficiency. A promising approach to mitigating this issue involves the integration of computer vision technologies with an appropriate data storage system and stochastic simulation to enable accurate and supportive predictions that enhance planning. In this work the YOLOv8 image recognition algorithm is used to identify and classify each passenger’s carry-on baggage into categories such as handbags, backpacks and suitcases. This data is then linked to passenger information stored in the NoSQL database MongoDB, which included seat assignments and the number of carry-on items per passenger. Stochastic simulation is applied to predict the occupancy levels of overhead storage bins across

Bergmann, Jacqueline, Hub, Maximilian

Segment Manipulator Retrofit

2025-01-0159To be published on 05/02/2025

A segment manipulator machine was in service nineteen years. Many of the control components were out of date and hard to obtain. Customer engaged Electroimpact to upgrade using the latest state-of-art controls. The program from the previous control system could not be reused. A “layup mandrel” is a form that is used to lay carbon fiber. The layup mandrel for a wide body aircraft fuselage section consists of six segments. The mandrel is made up of segments so that it can be assembled and disassembled from the inside. The segments are Crown, Upper Left, Upper Right, Lower Left, Lower Right, and Keel. For each build the mandrel is assembled with a segment manipulator machine, wound with carbon fiber tape, clad, and baked in an autoclave. Then the mandrel is disassembled with a segment manipulator machine leaving the cured carbon fiber shell behind. The segments are refurbished and brought to the assembly area on segment carts for the next build. Segments each weigh in the vicinity of 3000

Luker, Zachary, Donahue, Michael

Model-Based Design and Energy Management of an Aeronautical Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell System

2025-01-0150To be published on 05/02/2025

The growing demand for air transport requires efficient and sustainable power systems to meet the pressing need for decarbonizing the sector. A hybrid unit, consisting of a proton exchange membrane fuel cell system and a lithium-ion battery, is a suitable option due to the benefits of reduced gravimetric and volumetric impacts, along with the flexibility of energy management strategies. This work addresses, using a model-based approach, the issue of integrating these electrochemical devices into the aircraft’s electrical architecture, considering both design and energy management aspects. Two scenarios are explored to match the DC bus line voltage requirements. In the first, the fuel cell system nominal power is kept constant, while the number of DC/DC converters operating in parallel is assessed by constructing bi-dimensional maps derived from literature. These maps relate the converter’s maximum deliverable power to the input and desired output voltage. The second scenario introduces

Aliberti, Paolo, Sorrentino, Marco, Cuomo, Fabrizio, Napolitano, Ciro

Short-Time Current Rating of Aircraft Wire

2025-01-0145To be published on 05/02/2025

This paper presents a comparative analysis of various short-time current rating formulas, focusing on applications in aircraft wiring. Examining historical formulas developed by pioneers such as W.H. Preece and I.M. Onderdonk alongside modern experimental data provide a comprehensive understanding of short-time current rating formulas. Also, exploring key challenges, such as environmental conditions and material variability in aviation with particular attention to adiabatic methods for current-carrying calculations. The findings of this paper offer practical insights into improving the safety and reliability of an aircraft electrical system with improving the accuracy of short-time current rating predictions.

Fifield, Jon

Enhancing Efficiency in Aerospace Manufacturing through AI Agent Based Bearing Diagnostics System

2025-01-0158To be published on 05/02/2025

Industrial bearings are critical components in aerospace manufacturing, where their failures can result in costly downtime. Traditional fault diagnosis typically depends on time-consuming on-site inspections conducted by specialized engineers. This research introduces an innovative Artificial Intelligence application that functions as a virtual maintenance technician, empowering on-site personnel to perform preliminary diagnoses. By reducing the dependence on specialized engineers, this technology aims to minimize downtime. The AI system leverages large language models to guide the inspection process, answer queries from a comprehensive knowledge base, analyze defect images, and generate detailed reports with actionable recommendations. Multiple deep learning algorithms operate as backend APIs to support this functionality. This study details the architectural design of the expert system and provides a real-time simulation of its workflow, demonstrating its potential to enhance

Chandrasekaran, Balaji

Powering the Future of Sustainable Flight

2025-01-0147To be published on 05/02/2025

Eaton Aerospace is collaborating with original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) on the advancement of technologies to increase aircraft efficiency, enable aircraft electrification, and reduce carbon emissions. Leveraging our expertise as an intelligent power management company, Eaton’s products and research include hydraulic power packs, electromechanical actuation (EMA), thermal management systems, and sustainable aviation fuel (SAF). Eaton Blended Power TM systems improve efficiency through eliminating all centralized hydraulic circuits with distributed power that is provided by a combination of hydraulic power packs and EMA for a More Electric Aircraft (MEA). EMA systems, including electrical synchronization, eliminate the usage of hydraulics and provide additional functionality that benefits the flight efficiency of the aircraft. With MEA comes higher energy and thermal densities, resulting in the need for advanced thermal management. Eaton’s scalable and modular thermal management

Skinner, Jeff, Proul, Margaret, Devan, Stephen, Clendenin, Laura, Hutchinson, Lewis, Masson, Andrew, May, Frank, Momotiuk, Andy, Zuzelski, Chris

Interconnected and Data-Driven Aircraft Cabin Systems: Consistent Integration of ARINC 853 Messaging Standard into Model-Based Aircraft Systems Development

2025-01-0174To be published on 05/02/2025

Increasing digitalization of the aircraft cabin, driven by the need for improved operational efficiency and an enhanced passenger experience, has led to the development of data-driven services. In order to implement these services, information from different systems is often required, which leads to a multi-system architecture. When designing a network that interconnects these systems, it is important to consider the heterogeneous device and supplier landscape as well as variations in the network architecture resulting from airline customization or cabin upgrades. The novel ARINC 853 Cabin Secure Media-Independent Messaging (CSMIM) standard addresses this challenge by specifying a communication protocol that relies on a data model to encode provided and consumed information. This paper presents an approach to integrate CSMIM-specific communication concepts into a Model-Based Systems Engineering (MBSE) framework using the Systems Modeling Language (SysML). This enables a streamlined

Giertzsch, Fabian, Blecken, Marvin, God, Ralf

Comparison of Different Joining Techniques as a Benchmark for Integrally Joined Thermoformed Components Based on Tailored rCF Organosheets

2025-01-0170To be published on 05/02/2025

Climate-neutral aviation requires resource-efficient composite manufacturing technologies and viable solutions for the reuse of carbon fibers (CF). In this context, thermoplastic composites (TPC) can make a strong contribution. Thermoforming of TPC is an efficient and established process for aerospace components. But it’s efficiency could be further increased by integration of joining processes, which would otherwise be separate steps. In this work, a two-step thermoforming process for hollow box structures, particularly uplift structures, is presented. The starting point are two organosheets. First, one of the organosheets, intended for the bottom skin of the uplift structure, is thermoformed. After cooling, the press opens, the organosheet remains in the press and an infrared heater is pivoted in, to locally heat up just the joining area. Meanwhile, a second organosheet, intended for the top skin, is heated and thermoformed and simultaneously joined to the lower skin, thereby forming

Vocke, Richard, Seeßelberg, Lorenz, Focke, Oliver, Dietrich, Jan Yorrick, Jobke, Katrin, Albe, Christopher, May, David

Semi-Automatic Riveter G39 Replacement

2025-01-0160To be published on 05/02/2025

Zieve, Peter, Reznicek, Jeffrey

Conceptual Design of a Superconducting Aero Electric Engine System

2025-01-0146To be published on 05/02/2025

The goal of the development of an electric aircraft engine is to create an aircraft system that achieves ultimate efficiency using hydrogen fuel instead of fossil fuels. Therefore, it is necessary to focus on reducing weight as much as possible, and this paper describes the approach to such fuel cell-powered aircraft. The authors have adopted a superconducting coreless rotating electric machine with an integrated hydrogen tank and are pursuing a target of 70kg or less for the main components of a 2MW rotating electric machine. High-temperature superconducting wires have zero electrical resistance and can carry a very high current density, but the alternating current (AC) loss generated when used in AC has been an issue in their application to rotating electric machines. In 2023, The SCSC cable was developed to be a low-AC-loss, robust, and high current cable concept, in which copper-plated multifilament coated conductors are wound spirally on a core. In addition to using this

Oyori, Hitoshi, Sakurai, Sho, Kusase, Shin, Yoshida, Yukihiro, Yoshinaga, Seiichiro, Nose, Hiroyuki, Amemiya, Naoyuki

MBSE Framework for Developing Data-Driven Passenger Services in Aircraft Cabins

2025-01-0171To be published on 05/02/2025

The aircraft cabin plays a crucial role in airline differentiation strategies, particularly when introducing novel, data-driven services. These services aim to enhance the passenger experience during the flight and to improve cabin crew efficiency in order to reduce workload and ensure continued growth of airline revenue. Digitalization and extensive exchange of information across the entire aircraft transport system have emerged as key enablers for these services. The development of aircraft and aircraft systems that realize these services is characterized by a multi-level development process. Various development levels are considered to initially identify the functions of an aircraft in the air transport system, refine its systems and break them down into their components until a level of detail is reached that allows the implementation of the component functions. In addition to the high complexity, a major challenge in this development is to ensure traceability and consistency

Blecken, Marvin, Giertzsch, Fabian, God, Ralf

Machine Learning-Based Vision Mapping and Planning for Flexibility in High-Mix Robotic Manufacturing

2025-01-0157To be published on 05/02/2025

Industries that require high-accuracy automation in the creation of high-mix/low-volume parts, such as aerospace, often face cost constraints with traditional robotics and machine tools due to the need for many pre-programmed tool paths, dedicated part fixtures, and rigid production flow. This paper presents a new machine learning (ML) based vision mapping and planning technique, created to enhance flexibility and efficiency in robotic operations, while reducing overall costs. The system is capable of mapping discrete process targets in the robot work envelope that the ML algorithms have been trained to identify, without requiring knowledge of the overall assembly. Using a 2D camera, images are taken from multiple robot positions across the work area and are used in the ML algorithm to detect, identify, and predict the 6D pose of each target. The algorithm uses the poses and target identifications to automatically develop a part program with efficient tool paths, including

Langan, Daniel, Hall, Michael, Goldberg, Emily, Schrandt, Sasha

Designing and Controlling a Hybrid Fuel Cell System for Propelling a Turboprop Aircraft

2025-01-0151To be published on 05/02/2025

In the context of aviation sector decarbonization, fuel cell hybrid electric aircrafts are a promising alternative to conventional fuels, presenting opportunities for more sustainable and efficient flight. Hence, the present work is focused on an alternative powertrain architecture, wherein a proton exchange membrane fuel cell system cooperates with a lithium-ion battery to fulfill the electrical power demand of a turboprop-based aircraft. Particularly, a mathematical tool is proposed to evaluate both the components size and performance, while a degradation aware rule-based control strategy guarantees an effective power split between the hybridizing components. Such an energy management approach introduces an idling level and a rate limiter to mitigate degradation associated with start-up/shut-down and transient phases, respectively. Moreover, to have a reliable estimation of the vehicle’s fuel economy, while also guaranteeing the correct components dimensioning, the fuel cell system

De Donato, Angelo, Aliberti, Paolo, Sorrentino, Marco, Cuomo, Fabrizio, Musto, Carmine

More Electric Engine Technologies Towards the 2040s

2025-01-0152To be published on 05/02/2025

Improvement and evolution of all aircraft technologies and the commercialization of new technologies are essential to the carbon-net-zero goal of air mobility. Passenger aircraft are required to provide the ultimate in comfort, economy, and safety, and gas turbine engines will not disappear, while promoting the conversion to SAF and hydrogen fuels. The More Electric Engine (or MEE) concept, which has been proposed since the late 2000s, is one alternative. This paper focuses on the electrification of engine accessories. When the concept of electrification of engine accessories was first presented at Aerotech 10 years ago, the discussion at Aerotech seemed to be negative. Attaching a motor to conventional engine accessories would obviously increase the weight. Next, the conventional engine accessories are centrally controlled and only FADEC is in command, but electrification of engine accessories will increase the cost by adding intelligence to all the accessories. On a more academic

Umeki, Yasuyoshi, Oyori, Hitoshi, Muraoka, Mikio, Suzuki, Tsunehisa, Ogami, Yasuhiro, Yamamoto, Yasuhiko

Drilling Methods for Controlling Exit Burr Height in CRES Material Stacks

2025-01-0169To be published on 05/02/2025

The Electroimpact Automatic Fan Cowl Riveter uses two novel drill processes to control exit burr height and achieve the required hole quality in CRES (Corrosion-Resistant Steel, also called stainless steel) material stacks. Both processes use piloted cutters on the OML side, and two different tools are used in a backside spindle on the IML side of the component. The first process uses a shallow-angle shave tool in the IML spindle to directly control the exit burr height after it is produced by the OML spindle and is called the “burr shave” technique. The second process uses a countersink tool in the IML spindle and produces an “intermediate countersink” after the pilot hole is drilled by the OML spindle, but before the final hole diameter is drilled. These drill processes were able to achieve the required hole quality in a challenging CRES material stack, which allows the machine to be qualified for one-up assembly of the component.

Schultz, Rich, Peterman, Randy, Luker, Zachary, Murakonda, Sai Krishna

Empirical Inflow Ratio Adjustment for Hovering Open Rotors with Experimental Validation

2025-01-0162To be published on 05/02/2025

This study presents empirical modifications of Blade Element Momentum Theory (BEMT) to improve rotor performance prediction for open rotors in hovering conditions. The empirical adjustments were made to the inflow ratio, factoring in the real rotor wake area and estimated induced power losses. A comparison between experimental data and two analytical models, one using an empirical inflow formula and the other a theoretical formula (classical BEMT), was conducted for two rotors. The empirical inflow model demonstrated superior accuracy in predicting thrust and torque. These modifications are applied to the inflow ratio by accounting for the actual rotor wake area and estimated induced power losses. The findings highlight the potential for more accurate performance prediction through the integration of empirical data into theoretical frameworks.

Dayhoum, Abdallah, Ramirez-Serrano, Alejandro, Martinuzzi, Robert

Sustainable Design of Automotive Batteries

2025-01-0001To be published on 04/18/2025

A consequence of the automotive industry's shift to electrification is that a significantly higher percentage of a vehicle's lifecycle CO₂ emissions occur during the production phase. As a result, vehicle manufacturers and suppliers must shift the focus of product development from the 'in-use phase only' to optimizing the complete product lifecycle. The proper design of a battery has the highest impact to all other phases following in the life-cycle. It influences the selection of materials, the manufacturing, in-use and end of life, respectively the recycling and recycling yield for a circular economy. Using real-life examples the paper will explain what are the main parameters necessary for designing a sustainable battery. What are the low hanging fruits to be considered? In addition, it will elaborate on the relation as well as the impacts to other KPIs like safety, costs and life-time of the battery. Finally it will round up in an outlook on how batteries will evolve in the future

Braun, Andreas, Rothbart, Martin

Development of Prediction Model for Vehicle Road Load Using Machine Learning

2025-01-8258

04/01/2025

In the modern automotive industry, improving fuel efficiency while reducing carbon emissions is a critical challenge. To address this challenge, accurately measuring a vehicle’s road load is essential. The current methodology, widely adopted by national guidelines, follows the coastdown test procedure. However, coastdown tests are highly sensitive to environmental conditions, which can lead to inconsistencies across test runs. Previous studies have mainly focused on the impact of independent variables on coastdown results, with less emphasis on a data-driven approach due to the difficulty of obtaining large volumes of test data in a short period, both in terms of time and cost. This paper presents a road load energy prediction model for vehicles using the XGBoost machine learning technique, demonstrating its ability to predict road load coefficients. The model features 27 factors, including rolling, aerodynamic, inertial resistance, and various atmospheric conditions, gathered from a

Song, Hyunseung, Lee, Dong Hyuk, Chung, Hyun

Research on Segmented Latency Testing Method for in-Vehicle Real-Time Systems Based on DDS Middleware

2025-01-8083

04/01/2025

With the rapid development of intelligent connected vehicles, their open and interconnected communication characteristics necessitate the use of in-vehicle Ethernet with high bandwidth, real-time performance, and reliability. DDS is expected to become the middleware of choice for in-vehicle Ethernet communication. The Data Distribution Service (DDS), provided by the Object Management Group (OMG), is an efficient message middleware based on the publish/subscribe model. It offers high real-time performance, flexibility, reliability, and scalability, showing great potential in service-oriented in-vehicle Ethernet communication. The performance of DDS directly impacts the stable operation of vehicle systems, making accurate evaluation of DDS performance in automotive systems crucial for optimizing system design. This paper proposes a latency decomposition method based on DDS middleware, aiming to break down the overall end-to-end latency into specific delays at each processing stage

Yu, Yanhua, Luo, Feng, Ren, Yi, Hou, Yongping

Fundamental Science on Oxygen Storage Capacity of Cerium Complex Oxides for Advanced On-Board Diagnostics (1) Kinetic Observation of Cerium Valence Change Using Synchrotron Radiation

2025-01-8474

04/01/2025

On-board diagnosis (OBD) of gasoline vehicle emissions is detected by measuring the fluctuations of the rear oxygen sensor due to the time-dependent deterioration of the oxygen storage capacity (OSC) contained in the automotive catalyst materials. To detect OBD in various driving modes of automobiles with an order of magnitude higher accuracy than before, it is essential to understand the OSC mechanism based on fundamental science. In this study, time-resolved dispersive X-ray absorption fine structure (DXAFS) using synchrotron radiation was used to carry out a detailed analysis not only of the OSC of ceria-based complex oxides, which had previously been roughly understood, but also of how differences in design parameters such as the type of precious metals, reducing gases (CO and H2), detection temperatures, and mileages (degree of deteriorations) affect the OSC rate in a fluctuating redox atmosphere. A fundamental characteristic was clearly demonstrated in ceria-based complex oxides

Tanaka, Hirohisa, Matsumura, Daiju, Uegaki, Shinya, Hamada, Shota, Aotani, Takuro, Kamezawa, Saeka, Nakamoto, Masami, Asai, Shingo, Mizuno, Tomohisa, Takamura, Riku, Goto, Takashi

Impact of Preload and Amplitude on the High-Frequency Behaviour of Rubber Bushings in Electric Vehicles: An Experimental Study

2025-01-8254

04/01/2025

Electric vehicles (EVs) are particularly susceptible to high-frequency noise, with rubber eigenmodes significantly influencing these noise characteristics. Unlike internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, EVs experience pronounced variations in dynamic preload during torque rise, which are substantially higher. This dynamic preload variation can markedly impact the high-frequency behaviour of preloaded rubber bushings in their installed state. This study investigates the effects of preload and amplitude on the high-frequency dynamic performance of rubber bushings specifically designed for EV applications. These bushings are crucial for vibration isolation and noise reduction, with their role in noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) management being more critical in EVs due to the absence of traditional engine noise. The experimental investigation examines how preload and excitation amplitude variations influence the dynamic stiffness, damping properties, and overall performance of

Hazra, Sandip, Khan, Arkadip Amitava

Adapting the Technology Readiness Level (TRL) Framework to Automated Vehicle Development

2025-01-8671

04/01/2025

Abstract The technological advancements in the automotive industry have seen a significant leap with the introduction of automated driving system (ADS)-equipped Vehicles (AVs), with potential for enhanced safety, efficiency, and mobility. As the development of an AV transitions from the stages of conceptual design to deployment, assessing the maturity of the technology through a structured framework is crucial. This paper proposes the adaptation of the Technology Readiness Level (TRL) framework originally developed by NASA (and adopted widely in a variety of industries) to the AV industry to provide a consistent, understandable, and transparent method to describe an AV product’s stage of development. The TRL framework is mated to the existing safety case framework (SCF) developed in the Automated Vehicle – Test and Evaluation Process (AV-TEP) Mission, a collaboration between Science Foundation Arizona and Arizona State University. The claim that the AV is ready to transition from one

Swaminathan, Sunder, Wishart, Jeffrey, Zhao, Junfeng, Russo, Brendan, Rahimi, Shujauddin

Accuracy of Mobile Phone LiDAR on Crashed Vehicles

2025-01-8692

04/01/2025

Apple’s mobile phone LiDAR capabilities can be used with multiple software applications to capture the geometry of vehicles and smaller objects. The results from different software have been previously researched and compared to traditional ground-based LiDAR. However, results were inconsistent across software applications, with some software being more accurate and others being less accurate. (Technical Paper 2023-01-0614. Miller, Hashemian, Gillihan, Benes.) This paper builds upon existing research by utilizing the updated LiDAR hardware that Apple has added to its iPhone 15 smartphone lineup. This new hardware, in combination with the software application PolyCam, was used to scan a variety of crashed vehicles. These crashed vehicles were also scanned using a FARO 3D scanners and Leica RTC 360 scanners, which have been researched extensively for their accuracy. The PolyCam scans were compared to FARO and Leica scans to determine accuracy for point location and scaling. Previous

Miller, Seth Higgins, Stogsdill, Michael, McWhirter, Seth

Research on Noise Optimization Control Based on the New Dead Zone Compensation in Dual Motor Hybrid System

2025-01-8516

04/01/2025

In a three-phase voltage source inverter, in order to prevent the direct short circuit of the upper and lower tubes of the bridge arm and ensure the normal operation of the inverter, microsecond-level dead time needs to be added when the power devices are turned on and off. However, due to the dead-time effect, slight distortion may occur in the inverter within the modulation period, and this distortion will eventually lead to harmonic components in the output current after accumulation, thereby generating torque ripple. Against the above background, implementing dead-time compensation strategies is very important. To compensate for the voltage error caused by the dead-time effect, current polarity determination is required first. Then, the dead time is compensated, thereby indirectly compensating for the voltage error caused by the dead-time effect. Regarding the dead-time compensation time, without changing the hardware, this paper proposes a solution to turn off the dead-time

Jing, Junchao, Zhang, Junzhi, Zuo, Botao, Liu, Yiqiang, Yang, Tianyu, Zhu, Lulong

Bio-Based Phase Change Material for Electric Vehicle Battery Thermal Management using Copper Fins: A Numerical Investigation

2025-01-8171

04/01/2025

Electric vehicles (EVs) are gaining popularity due to their zero tailpipe emissions, superior energy efficiency, and sustainable nature. EVs have various limitations, and crucial one is the occurrence of thermal runaway in the battery pack. During charging or discharging condition of battery pack may result in thermal runaway condition. This promotes the requirement of effective cooling arrangement in and around the battery pack to avoid localized peak temperature. In the present work, thermal management of a 26650 Lithium iron phosphate (LFP) cell using natural convection air cooling, composite biobased phase change material (CBPCM) and its combination with copper fins is numerically investigated using multi-scale multi dimension - Newman, Tiedenann, Gu and Kim (MSMD-NTGK) battery model in Ansys Fluent at an ambient temperature of 306 K. Natural convection air cooling was found effective at discharge rates of 1C to 3C, maintaining cell temperature below the safe limit of 318 K for 80

Srivastav, Durgesh, Patil, Nagesh Devidas, Shukla, Pravesh Chandra

A Study on Affections of Active Neck Muscle Force on Neck Injury Responses in Frontal Impact with Automatic Emergency Braking Conditions

2025-01-8742

04/01/2025

Neck injury is one of the most common injuries in traffic accidents, and its severity is closely related to the posture of the occupant at the time of impact. In the current era of smart vehicle, the triggered AEB and the occupant's active muscle force will cause the head and neck to be out of position which has significant affections on the occurrence and severity of neck injury responses. Therefore, it is very important to study the influences of active muscle force on neck injury responses in in frontal impact with Automatic Emergency Braking conditions. Based on the geometric characteristics of human neck muscles in the Zygote Body database, the reasonable neck muscle physical parameters were obtained firstly. Then a neck finite element model (FEM) with active muscles was developed and verified its biofidelity under various impact conditions, such as frontal, side and rear-end impacts. Finally, using the neck FEM with or without active muscle force, a comparative study was

Junpeng, Xu, Gan, Qiuyu, Jiang, Binhui, Zhu, Feng

Artificial Intelligence Technique Applied to Semi-Active Vibration Control in Vehicle Suspension System

2025-01-8270

04/01/2025

This study investigates the influence of magnetorheological (MR) dampers in semi-active suspension systems (SASSs) on ride comfort, vehicle stability, and overall performance. Semi-active suspension systems achieve greater flexibility and efficacy by combining MR dampers with the advantages of active and passive suspension systems. The study aims to measure the benefits of MR dampers in improving ride comfort, vehicle stability, and overall system performance. The dynamic system model meets all required performance criteria. This study demonstrates that the proposed artificial intelligence approach, including a fuzzy neural networks proportional-integral-derivative (FNN-PID) controller, significantly enhances key performance criteria when tested under various road profiles. The control performance requirements in engineering systems are evaluated in the frequency and time domains. A quarter-car model with two degrees of freedom (2 DOF) was simulated using MATLAB/Simulink to assess the

M.Faragallah, Mohamed, Metered, Hassan, Abdelghany, M.A., Essam, Mahmoud A.

Concept of On-Board Diagnostics System of Vehicle Electric Drive

2025-01-8095

04/01/2025

The problem of monitoring the parametric failures of a traction electric drive unit consisting of an inverter, a traction machine and a gearbox when interacting with a battery management system has been solved. The strategy for solving the problem is considered for an electric drive with three-phase synchronous and induction machines. The drive power elements perform electromechanical energy conversion with additional losses. The losses are caused by deviations of the element parameters from the nominal values during operation. Monitoring gradual failures by additional losses is adopted as a key concept of on-board diagnostics. Deviation monitoring places increased demands on the information support and accuracy of mathematical models of power elements. We take into account that the first harmonics of currents and voltages of a three-phase circuit are the dominant energy source, higher harmonics of PWM appear as harmonic losses, and mechanical losses in the rotor and gearbox can be

Smolin, Victor, Gladyshev, Sergey, Topolskaya, Irina

An Adaptive Risk-Based Access Control with Trusted Execution Environment for Vehicles

2025-01-8089

04/01/2025

The rapid development of intelligent and connected vehicles is transforming them into data-rich information carriers, which generate and store vast amounts of sensitive information. However, the frequent sharing of resources within these vehicles poses substantial risks to user privacy and data security. Should sensitive resources be accessed maliciously, the consequences could be severe, leading to significant threats to the safety, property, and reputation of both drivers and passengers. To address these risks, this paper proposes an adaptive risk-based access control with Trusted Execution Environment (TEE) specifically designed for vehicles, aimed at managing and restricting access permissions based on risk assessments. Firstly, this paper designs an adaptive risk model in accordance with ISO/SAE 21434, taking into account factors such as the security levels of subjects and objects, context, and the risk history of subjects to separately quantify threats and impacts. By adjusting

Luo, Feng, Li, Zhihao, Wang, Jiajia, Luo, Cheng

A Comparative Study of Optimization Algorithms for 6DOF Design in Electric Vehicle Powertrain Mounting Systems

2025-01-8650

04/01/2025

Optimizing engine mounting systems is a complex task that requires balancing the isolation of vehicle vibrations with controlling powertrain movement within a limited dynamic envelope. Six Degrees of Freedom (6DOF) optimization is widely used for mounting stiffness and location optimization. This study investigates the application of various optimization algorithms for 6DOF analysis in engine mount design, where the system’s stochastic behaviour and probabilistic characteristics present additional challenges. Selecting an appropriate optimization framework is essential for achieving accurate and efficient NVH results. Recent advancements in research have introduced several 6DOF optimization algorithms to determine the optimal stiffness and location of engine mounts. The study evaluates a range of optimization methods, including Simultaneous Hybrid Exploration that is Robust, Progressive and Adaptive (SHERPA), Quadratic Programming (QP), Genetic Algorithm (GA), Particle Swarm

Hazra, Sandip, Khan, Arkadip

A Suspension Model Based on Semi-Recursive Method and Data-Driven Compliance Characteristics

2025-01-8282

04/01/2025

Many methods have been proposed to accurately compute a vehicle’s dynamic response in real-time. The semi-recursive method, which models using relative coordinates rather than dependent coordinates, has been proven to be real-time capable and sufficiently accurate for kinematics. However, not only kinematics but also the compliance characteristics of the suspension significantly impact a vehicle’s dynamic response. These compliance characteristics are mainly caused by bushings, which are installed at joints to reduce vibration and wear. As a result, using relative or joint coordinates fails to account for the effects of bushings, leading to a lack of compliance characteristics in suspension and vehicle models developed with the semi-recursive method. In this research, we propose a data-driven approach to model the compliance characteristics of a double wishbone suspension using the semi-recursive method. First, we create a kinematic double wishbone suspension model using both the semi

Zhang, Hanwen, Duan, Yupeng, Zhang, Yunqing, Wu, Jinglai

The Influence of out-of-Position Displacement during Emergency Braking on Occupant Whiplash Injury in Subsequent Rear-End Collisions

2025-01-8720

04/01/2025

In the pre-crash emergency braking scenario, the occupant inside the vehicle will move forward due to inertia, deviating from the standard upright seating position for which conventional restraint systems are designed. Previous studies have mainly focused on the influence of out-of-position (OOP) displacement on occupant injuries in frontal collisions, and provided solutions such as active pretensioning seatbelts (APS). But little attention has been paid to the influence of OOP on whiplash injury during a subsequent rear-end collision. To investigate the forward OOP impact on whiplash injuries and the effectiveness of APS in this accident scenario, a vehicle interior model with an active human body model (AHBM) was setup in the MADYMO simulation platform. Different braking strengths (0.8g and 1.1g), APS triggering times (from 0.2s before to 0.2s after the braking initiation) and pretensioning forces (from 100N to 600N) were input to the simulation matrix. The occupant’s forward OOP

Fei, Jing, Qiu, Hang, Wang, Peifeng, Liu, Yu, Cheng, James Chih, Zhou, Qing, Tan, Puyuan

An Introduction and Evaluation of Apple iOS Device Data for Use in Crash Reconstruction

2025-01-8706

04/01/2025

The integration of mobile device data in accident/crash/collision reconstruction methodologies offers significant potential in analyzing collision events. This study evaluates the utility of iPhone-recorded data, specifically Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) position and speed data, along with Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) based time and date information associated with application usage and device activity events. By conducting controlled tests, the accuracy, precision, and reliability of iPhone GNSS data were compared against high-accuracy reference systems, including a Racelogic VBox Video HD2 25 Hz GPS data logger and VBox Sport 25 Hz GPS data logger. The synchronicity between recorded app events and device activities with physical events was also analyzed to assess the temporal resolution of the data. Results highlight the strengths and limitations of iPhone data for reconstructing crash events, including potential discrepancies in GNSS accuracy under varying

Burgess, Shanon, Phy, Lance, Levan, Matthew

FIT File Processing for Accident Reconstruction

2025-01-8696

04/01/2025

It is becoming increasingly common for bicyclists to record their rides using specialized bicycle computers and watches, the majority of which save the data they collect using the Flexible and Interoperable Data Transfer (.fit) Protocol. The contents of .fit files are stored in binary and thus not readily accessible to users, so the purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the differences induced by several common methods of analyzing .fit files. We used a Garmin Edge 830 bicycle computer with and without a wireless wheel speed sensor to record naturalistic ride data at 1 Hz. The .fit files were downloaded directly from the computer, uploaded to the chosen test platforms - Strava, Garmin Connect, and GoldenCheetah - and then exported to .gpx, .tcx and .csv formats. Those same .fit files were also parsed directly to .csv using the Garmin FIT Software Developer Kit (SDK) FitCSVTool utility. The data in those .csv files (henceforth referred to as “SDK data”) were then either directly

Sweet, David, Bretting, Gerald

Dynamic Testing and Analysis of Autocycle Vehicles for Accident Reconstruction

2025-01-8687

04/01/2025

The Autocycle is a style of vehicle that most often utilizes a reverse-tricycle design with two front wheels and a single rear wheel. Modern autocycles in the United States are often utilized in a recreational role. This work presents physical measurements of two modern autocycles for use in accident reconstruction and pursues a deeper understanding of the unique attributes and handling associated with these vehicles. Vehicles were used to measure physical properties and subjected to cornering tests presented herein, and the data is compared to that for a conventional automobile. Observations on tire scuff marks are made from cornering tests unique to these vehicles. Strengths and challenges with this type of vehicle design are presented for various use cases as compared to conventional automobiles. Data and knowledge from this study are published to aid accident reconstruction efforts.

Warner, Wyatt, Swensen, Grant, Warner, Mark

Analyzing EV Battery Package Responses during Side Pole Impacts with Multiple Speeds and Locations

2025-01-8730

04/01/2025

Electric vehicles (EVs) have experienced significant growth, and the battery safety of EVs has drawn increased attention. However, the mechanical responses of battery during crashes have rarely been studied. Hence, the objective of this study was to understand EV battery package mechanics during side-pole crashes at different impact locations and speeds beyond regulated side-pole test with one specific speed and one location. An EV finite element (FE) model with a battery package was used. Side-pole impact simulations were conducted at four impact locations, including the baseline impact location according to side-pole impact regulation, plus three positions by moving the rigid pole 400 mm toward the back of the EV and moving the pole 400 and 800 mm toward the front of the EV. In addition, the impact velocities at 32, 50, and 80 km/h were simulated. Based on simulations, the peak relative displacement, the maximum change in gap between batteries, the maximum change in gap between the

Chen, Jian, Bian, Kewei, Mao, Haojie

Effects of Targeted Instruction on Non-Functional Requirement Understanding: A Case Study in Graduate Vehicle Design

2025-01-8348

04/01/2025

Comprehensive requirements generation is a critical stage of the design process. Requirements are used to bound the design space and to guide the selection and evaluation of various solutions. Requirements can be categorized as either functional, defining things that the solution must do (such as produce a certain amount of horsepower), or non-functional, defining desirable qualities of the solution (such as weigh less than a particular value). Functional requirements are relatively easy to define and are often associated with particular components or subsystems within the design. As such, they can be the main focus of academic design instruction and therefore the design projects undertaken by novice designers. However, non-functional requirements (NFRs) capture important characteristics of the design solution and should not be ignored. Because of their nature, they are also difficult to assign to a particular subset of components or subsystem within the system. In this study, a group

Sutton, Meredith, Anbuvanan, Aadithan, Castanier, Matthew P., Turner, Cameron, Kurz, Mary E.

Flow and Heat Transfer Performance Analysis of Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger in Electric Vehicles

2025-01-8157

04/01/2025

In driving condition, the electric drive system of electric vehicles generates significant heat, which increases temperature of the motor, leading to reduced performance and energy loss. To manage the motor temperature and recover energy, a plate-fin heat exchanger (PFHE) is used to facilitate heat exchange between the electric drive system and the vehicle's thermal management system. In this study, Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) method was used to investigate the fin structure on thermal flow performance within the PFHE. The mathematical models of pressure drop and heat transfer of plate-fin heat exchanger are established in this paper, and an empirical formula for the friction factor was derived by using test data. The NTU method was applied to fit the formula of convective heat transfer coefficient, enabling the derivation of an empirical formula for the Colburn factor. A CFD simulation model was developed for a local heat exchange unit, considering the generic boundary

Yin, Jintai, Yin, Zhihong, Lu, Xuan, Wang, Mengmeng, Liu, Qian

Impact of Active Turbulence Generation System in 3/4 Open-Jet Wind Tunnel: Flow Structures, Shear Layer, and Low-Frequency Fluctuations

2025-01-8783

04/01/2025

With increasing attention to complex aerodynamic conditions such as crosswinds, gusts, road turbulence, and vehicle drafting, accurately reconstructing these unsteady and turbulent environments in automotive wind tunnels has become a significant challenge. Addressing this challenge is crucial for broadening experimental conditions and advancing research in unsteady aerodynamics. However, the integration of turbulence generation systems impacts low-frequency fluctuation phenomena, leading to pressure and velocity inaccuracy, and also affects the flow structure in the test section as well, especially in the jet shear layer. In this paper, the impact of an active turbulence generation system on turbulence characteristics and flow structures within jet shear layer in a wind tunnel is numerically investigated. By comparing the flow structure among the empty wind tunnel, and wind tunnel with static and dynamic active turbulence generation system, the mechanisms underlying these

Jia, Qing, Qin, Lanwei, Zhao, Civil, Wang, Yikun, Xia, Chao, Yang, Zhigang, Wei, Huanxia

Identification of Size and Distribution Features of Spherical Magnetic Wear Particles in Engine Lubricant

2025-01-8398

04/01/2025

To address the issue of signal aliasing when multiple particles pass through a metallic particle sensor, which can lead to misidentification of particle count, we employ numerical simulation methods for an in-depth investigation. We developed a mathematical model of a three-coil inductive metal particle sensor to explore the signal variations induced by the passage of a single particle. We utilized micro-element simulation analysis to dissect the signal generated by a single particle, elucidating the underlying change process. Focusing on dual ferromagnetic particles as the subject of study, we conducted simulations and demodulation of the induced voltage under various combinations of sizes and spacings to investigate the influence patterns of dual adjacent ferromagnetic particles on the sensor's induced signal. Further research into the peak signals of different diameter particles at a constant spacing revealed that, for a given spacing, the ratio of peak signals between particles of

Chen, Sen, Shen, Yitao, Qiang, Guiyan, Zheng, Zheng, Wang, Zheyu, Hao, Yin, Hu, Ting

Material-Combined Vehicle Brake Disc Design for Enhanced Cooling Performance

2025-01-8189

04/01/2025

The improvement of heat dissipation performance of ventilated brake discs is vital to braking safety. Usually, the technical approaches shall be material optimization or structural improvement. In this paper, a simulation model of the heat transfer of brake discs is established using STAR-CCM+ software. Cast iron, aluminum metal matrix composite (Al-MMC), and carbon-ceramic composite materials (C-SiC) are compared. The results show that: Al-MMC has better thermal conductivity so that a more uniform temperature gradient distribution shall be formed; C-SiC has poorer heat capacity yet, according to previous studies, it has better thermal stability, which is the ability to ensure its friction factor under high-temperature condition; cast iron performs better with convective heat transfer rate, which enhances the heat transfer between the surface and surrounding flow field. Based on the results, this paper proposes four types of material combined brake discs using different friction

Wang, Jiarui, Jia, Qing, Zhao, Wentao, Xia, Chao, Yang, Zhigang

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