Browse Topic: Finite element analysis

Items (3,410)
Find
Optimisation of Rotor Skewing of a Yokeless And Segmented Armature Axial Flux Machine2025-01-0311To be published on 07/02/2025
This paper presents an optimization of rotor skewing of an Axial Flux Machine (AFM) in a Yokeless And Segmented Armature (YASA) design in the torque-speed characteristics diagram. AFM have advantages regarding a compact design and high torque density compared to other variants of permanent magnet machines. The drive train Noise, Vibration and Harshness (NVH) performance is influenced by cogging torque, magnetic torque ripple and tooth forces. While the axial skewing of rotors in radial flux machines (RFM) has already been extensively studied to minimize these magnetic excitations, this represents a target value for optimizations in AFM. Optimizations are carried out and validated using 2D and 3D finite-element (FE) models. The 2D model combines multiple 2D slices but lacks accuracy because an insufficient inclusion of 3D effects. The 3D model allows to obtain a noticeable reduction by more than 30% of the dominant torque harmonic amplitudes over the whole torque-speed range in
Müller, Karsten, Maisch, Hannes, De Gersem, Herbert, Burkhardt, Yves
Technical Paper
Evaluation of Static and Dynamic stiffness of rubber grommet by experimental and FEA method2025-01-0274To be published on 07/02/2025
Vibration control is most important in automotive applications and generally rubbers are used to dampen these vibrations due to their inherent nature and low-cost manufacturing methods. Now to select a rubber material shore hardness is considered in engineering applications, but to additionally control the behaviour we need to understand its static and dynamic stiffness. These values help to determine the vibration isolation obtained by these rubbers. In this paper, we will discuss methods to calculate the static and dynamic stiffness of rubber grommets using experimental methods and FEA modelling. As elastomers have non-linear material properties various material modelling techniques in FEA are used to capture multiple phenomena like creep, fatigue and dynamic conditions. Rubber compounding is used to improve the physical and chemical properties which in turn would give desirable linear characteristics. Certain guidelines and thumb rules are used in the rubber industry for different
Khamkar, Prasad Subhash, Gaikwad, Vikrant C
Technical Paper
Closed-loop real-time simulation of the thermal and electromagnetic behavior in electric drive trains: Optimizing model accuracy for virtual prototyping2025-01-0320To be published on 07/02/2025
This paper presents a coupled electromagnetic and thermal simulation of Permanently Excited Synchronous Machines (PMSM) in the context of virtual prototyping in a real-time Hardware-in-the-Loop (HiL) environment. Particularly in real-time simulations, thermal influences are often neglected due to the increased complexity of a coupled simulation. This results in inaccurate simulations and incomplete design optimizations. The objective of this contribution is to enable a precise and realistic real-time simulation that represents the electromagnetic as well as the thermal behavior. The electromagnetic simulation is executed used a Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) and parameterized by Finite Element Analysis (FEA) results. The thermal model is based on a Lumped-Parameter-Thermal-Network (LPTN), which is based on physical laws, geometry parameters and material specifications. The simulation results are validated with testbench measurements to ensure the accuracy of the overall model. By
Jonczyk, Fabian, Kara, Onur, Bergheim, Yannick, Lee, Sung-Yong, Strop, Malte, Prochotta, Fabian, Andert, Jakob
Technical Paper
Numerical Simulation and Parametric Optimization of Engine/Powertrain Mounts: Identifying Key Design Variables to Reduce NVH Noise2025-01-0251To be published on 06/16/2025
Abstract: Introduction: Engine and powertrain mounts are vital for isolating vibrations and reducing the transmission of Noise, Vibration, and Harshness (NVH) from the engine to the vehicle structure. Despite technological advancements, addressing NVH issues related to tribological factors continues to pose significant challenges in automotive engineering. Aim: This study aims to systematically identify and optimize design parameters of engine/powertrain mounts to minimize NVH levels using CAE tools and parametric optimization techniques in Abaqus and Isight, respectively. Purpose: The purpose of this research is to investigate the correlation between various design parameters of powertrain mounts and their impact on NVH characteristics. Specific attention is focused on noises such as clunking, banging, or thumping that emerge from the engine bay under dynamic conditions like acceleration, braking, or turning. These sounds often occur as the engine moves excessively due to worn mounts
GANESAN, KARTHIKEYAN
Technical Paper
Noise analysis and optimization of thermal management integrated module2025-01-0081To be published on 05/05/2025
Thermal Management Integration Module (TMIM), which comprises components such as water pumps, runner boards, brackets, sensors, etc., is a multifunctional integrated component for electric vehicles. However, the water pump generates an excitation over a wide range of frequencies due to a wide range of speed variations. This excitation causes the TMIM to vibrate and generate noise. In this study, a TMIM that generates noise is studied and analyzed. Using the TMIM of an electric vehicle as a case study, a full-vehicle experimental test was conducted, revealing that the noise originates from the integration module. The finite element method is used to analyze the cause of noise generation. Given the characteristics of the TMIM, which comprise many components, high integration, and a complex structure, this paper simplifies the bracket, heat exchanger, sensor, and other components using the centralized mass point method. The modal state of the TMIM is obtained by impact hammer testing the
Xu, Shenao
Technical Paper
Experimental Characterization of a Steel Spring Mount using Virtual Point Transformation2025-01-0046To be published on 05/05/2025
The application of virtual point transformation for determining the transfer dynamic stiffness of a helical coil spring is demonstrated in this experimental study. Rigid fixtures are attached to both ends of the spring, and frequency response functions are measured using impact hammer excitations. These frequency response functions are transformed into virtual points, analogous to a node in finite element analysis, with six degrees of freedom. The six degrees of freedom transfer dynamic stiffness is then extracted using the inverse substructuring method, which eliminates the need to account for fixture dynamics. The results are validated by a direct measurement approach. Additionally, the study investigates the effect of liquid applied sprayed damping coatings on the spring's transfer dynamic stiffness, revealing that the coating significantly reduces vibration amplitudes at the surge frequencies. This suggest that the springs effective damping properties are enhanced.
Neihguk, David, Herrin, D. W., de Klerk, Dennis
Technical Paper
Study on the Aspiration Properties of Glassrun Seal System under Time-Varying Pressure Difference2025-01-0030To be published on 05/05/2025
When a vehicle is driven at high speed, there exists intricate flow pattern and vortex shedding at the side window area with intense pressure fluctuation. A significant dynamic pressure difference between the vehicle's exterior and interior can render the side window sealing system vulnerable to aspiration. This susceptibility can lead to the generation of leakage noise, adversely affecting acoustic comfort in the vehicle's cabin. This paper delves into the aspiration properties of glassrun seal system under time-varying pressure difference. A nonlinear finite element model of the glassrun seal was established to simulate the quasi-static deformation of the sealing strip during installation process, which aims to obtain the deformed geometric shape and residual stress after this process. Then, the exterior flow field of the glassrun sealing area of a simplified vehicle model was calculated with CFD simulation to obtain the hydrodynamic pressure excitation acting on the outer surface of
Li, Hanqi, He, Yinzhi, Zhang, Lijun, Zhang, Yongfeng, Yu, Wuzhou, Jiang, Zaixiu, Blumrich, Reinhard, Wiedemann, Jochen
Technical Paper
Comprehensive Analysis and Optimization of Door Closing Sound Quality of a Heavy Truck2025-01-0066To be published on 05/05/2025
Based on the objective and subjective experiment and finite element analysis, the influencing factors on the door closing sound quality of a heavy-duty truck is analyzed and optimized. Results show that the loudness and sharpness can be reduced apparently by increasing stiffness and damping of the door. The sound quality can be enhanced by increasing the pressure release area, which can decrease the air resistance of dooring closing. By adding holes on the inner liner and changing the pressure release location, the dooring closing air resistance is reduced from 289 Pa to 181 Pa. In terms of the rebound sound, the sound level is positively relative to the door closing force. Increasing the protrusion height and decreasing the stiffness of the vibration absorber of the handle can improve the rebound sound quality. Optimizing the absorbers on both ends and adding damping material can decrease the loudness by 47.8%, reduce the cavity sound, dismiss the trembling and improve the compact
Wang, Jian, Zhang, Yongshen, Feng, Lei, Xie, Chenhao, Lin, Jiewei, Sun, Changchun
Technical Paper
Evaluation of Material Damping Ratio of Electronic Ignition Switch Module to Enhance its Finite Element Model Physics for Harmonic Response2025-01-0109To be published on 05/05/2025
The present paper investigates the material damping ratio parameter in detailed manner for different Electronic Ignition Switch Module (EISM) utilized in two-wheeler automobiles. At first, investigation is carried out for developing a Finite Element Method (FEM) based simulation model. The simulation is performed by matching the failure areas of critical component in assembly with physical sinusoidal vibration based shaker table test results (particularly breakage) by utilizing different damping ratios for the assembly. The damping ratio parameter is further utilized to perform FEM based harmonic response analysis for different EISM and evaluate critical structural breakage zones. The breakage zones predicted by simulation were found to be aligned with breakage zones shown by shaker table test results. The results are validated, specifically considering the damping ratio parameter. The FEM based harmonic response analysis is performed for a particular acceleration excitation in between
Shah, Viren, Kalurkar, Shantanu, Kumar, Rahul, Kushari, Subrata, Miraje, Jitendra, D, Suresh, Parandkar, Parag
Technical Paper
A Theoretical and Experimental Investigation of NVH of In-Wheel Reduced Motor System2025-01-0006To be published on 05/05/2025
To enhance the power density of the system and reduce production costs, the in-wheel reduced motor system (IWRMS), characterized by its integrated design and control, is poised to become the future development trend. However, the high speeds of motors and gear reducers can lead to challenges such as system stability and issues related to NVH (Noise, Vibration, and Harshness). This paper specifically addresses the NVH concerns associated with the IWRMS. Firstly, a bench test scheme was established, and vibration and noise tests were conducted under a range of conventional operating conditions. The results indicated that at the torque of 200 Nm and the speed of 5500 rpm, the noise sound pressure level reached 86.2 dB, highlighting significant vibration and noise issues within the system. Subsequently, operating deflection shapes (ODS) testing and analysis were performed on the IWRMS. Vibration responses of 48th order show that breathing mode of the motor housing bring resonance
Huang, Chao, Xiong, Lu, Meng, Dejian, Gong, Yu, Guo, Han, Zhang, Mengyuan
Technical Paper
High-Fidelity NVH Model Development for Electric Motors using Deep learning and Machine Learning Algorithms2025-01-0123To be published on 05/05/2025
Electric motor whine is a significant source of noise in electric vehicles (EVs). To improve the noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) performance of electric propulsion systems, it is essential to develop a physics-based, high-fidelity stator model. In this study, a machine learning (ML) model is developed using an artificial neural network (ANN) method to accurately characterize the material properties of the copper winding, varnish, and orthotropic stator laminate structure. A design of experiments (DOE) approach using Latin hypercube sampling of parameters is implemented after evaluating alternative surrogate models. A finite element (FE) model is constructed using the nominal stator design parameters to train the ANN model using 121 DOE variables and 72,000 data points. The ML-trained ANN model is then verified to predict the driving point frequency response function (FRF) spectrum with reasonable accuracy. Subsequently, modal tests are conducted on the electric stator, and the
Rao, Bhyri Rajeswara, GSJ, Gautam, He, Song
Technical Paper
Horn sound digital validation for ECE-R28 regulation compliance2025-01-0008To be published on 05/05/2025
Every vehicle has to be certified by the concerned governing authority that it matches certain specified criteria laid out by the government for all vehicles made or imported into that country. Horn is one of the components that is tested for its function and sound level before a vehicle is approved for production and sale. Horn, which is an audible warning device, is used to warn others about the vehicle’s approach or presence or to call attention to some hazard. The vehicle horn must comply with the ECE-R28 regulation in the European market. Digital simulation of the horn is performed to validate the ECE-R28 regulation. In order to perform this, a finite element model of a cut model of a vehicle, which includes the horns and other components, is created. Fluid-structure coupled numerical estimation of the sound pressure level of the horn, with the appropriate boundary conditions, is performed at the desired location as per the ECE-R28 regulation. The simulation results thus obtained
Ramachandran, Balachandar, Raveendran, Roshin, Mondal, Arghya
Technical Paper
Navigating Evolving Vehicle NVH Challenges with Application of Emerging Technologies in Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning2025-01-0130To be published on 05/05/2025
The multifaceted, fast-paced evolution in the automotive industry includes noise and vibration (NVH) behavior of products for regulatory requirements and ever-increasing customer preferences and expectations for comfort. There is pressing need for automotive engineers to explore new and advanced technologies to achieve a ‘First Time Right’ product development approach for NVH design and deliver high-quality products in shorter timeframes. Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) are trending transformative technologies reshaping numerous industries. AI enables machines to replicate human cognitive functions, such as reasoning and decision-making, while ML, a branch of AI, employs algorithms that allow systems to learn and improve from data over time. The purpose of the paper is to show an approach of using machine learning techniques to analyze the impact of variations in structural design parameters on vehicle NVH responses. The study begins by executing the Design of
Miskin, Atul R., Parmar, Azan, Raj, Sonia, Himakuntla, Uma Maheswar
Technical Paper
Determination of optimum location of active tuned mass dampers to obtain improved NVH performance during cylinder de-activation events2025-01-0110To be published on 05/05/2025
Cylinder deactivation has been a proven technique to improve fuel economy for several years now. But on the flip side during cylinder deactivation events, high amplitude torque pulsations are generated at the crankshaft of the engine over a wide frequency range creating a potential risk for NVH performance of the vehicle. As passive tuned mass dampers are effective only in a narrow frequency range, active tuned mass dampers (ATMD) have become a popular choice to mitigate the risk. Often, engineers rely on finite element (FE) models of vehicle structures to make design decisions during the early stages of vehicle development. However, there is relatively little literature available on simulation of ATMD using FE techniques. Consequently, in most cases, ATMDs are not included in the FE models of vehicle structures. Several details related to the ATMD design are decided through physical testing at the latter stages of vehicle development. To address this issue, a methodology to simulate
Maddali, Ramakanth, Mogal, Akbar Baig, Haider, Syed, Jahangir, Yawar
Technical Paper
NVH Analysis and Optimization of Electric Drive System in Over Modulation and Six-Step Regions2025-01-0082To be published on 05/05/2025
Pulse width modulation (PWM) and the corresponding modulation index (MI) value are of critical importance to the performance of electric drive systems for electric vehicle applications. For interior permanent magnet (IPM) machines, operating in overmodulation (OVM) and six-step modes increases the voltage output beyond the linear region, allowing the motor to achieve higher torque and power with reduced inverter loss. However, the resulting distorted current waveforms and higher current ripple harmonics lead to a notable increase in the motor noise. A multi-disciplinary approach has been developed to analyze the NVH performance of a three-phase 8-pole IPM motor when it operates in the OVM and six-step regions at high speed. The PWM current ripple harmonics induced by voltage-source inverters are predicted using different MIs and subsequently validated through experiments. The current ripple data are used for the prediction of electric motor efficiency, including an analysis of copper
He, Song, Chang, Le, Gong, Cheng, Zhang, Peng, GSJ, Gautam
Technical Paper
Modeling Snap-Fit Stiffness for Improved BSR Predictions in Automotive Design2025-01-0089To be published on 05/05/2025
Squeak and Rattle (S&R) issues present significant challenges in the automotive industry, negatively affecting the perceived quality of vehicles. Early identification of these issues through rigorous testing protocols-such as auditory assessments and dynamic simulations-enables the development of more robust systems while optimizing resource use. Finite Element Method (FEM) simulations are crucial for identifying S&R issues during the design phase, allowing engineers to address potential problems before the creation of physical prototypes. By developing high-fidelity virtual models and accurately simulating flexible connections, these simulations effectively capture rattle effects, enhancing prediction reliability. Traditional snap stiffness calculations typically employ a cantilever-based formulation, which is suitable for simple snap-fit designs but insufficient for more complex geometries that require enhanced stiffness. To address this limitation, the proposed methodology utilizes
Rao, Sohan, Elangovan, Pranesh, Reddy, Hari
Technical Paper
Prediction Method of Strength Robustness Affected by Arc Welding Sectional Dimensions2024-32-003804/18/2025
The arc welding process is essential for motorcycle frames, which are difficult to form in one piece because of their complex shapes, because a single frame has dozens of joints. Many of the damaged parts of the frames under development are from welds. Predicting the strength of welds with high reliability is important to ensure that development proceeds without any rework. In developing frames, CAE is utilized to build up strength before prototyping. Detailed weld shapes are not applicable to FE models of frames because weld shapes vary widely depending on welding conditions. Even if CAE is performed on such an FE model and the evaluation criteria are satisfied, the model may fail in the actual vehicle, possibly due to the difference between CAE and actual weld bead geometry. Therefore, we decided to study the extent to which the stresses in the joint vary with the variation of the weld bead geometry. Morphing, a FE modeling method and design of experiment method, was utilized to
Hada, Yusuke, Sugita, Hisayuki
Technical Paper
Compatibility between Stability and Curving Ability of Railway Vehicles Using Conventional and Unconventional Bogie Frame Models02-18-03-001404/09/2025
This article analyses the fundamental curving mechanics in the context of conditions of perfect steering off-flanging and on-flanging. Then conventional, radial, and asymmetric suspension bogie frame models are presented, and expressions of overall bending stiffness kb and overall shear stiffness ks of each model are derived to formulate the uniform equations of motion on a tangent and circular track. A 4 degree of freedom steady-state curving model is formulated, and performance indices such as stability, curving, and several parameters including angle of attack, tread wear index, and off-flanging performance are investigated for different bogie frame configurations. The compatibility between stability and curving is analyzed concerning those configurations and compared. The critical parameters influencing hunting stability and curving ability are evaluated, and a trade-off between them is analyzed. For the verification, the damped natural frequencies and mean square acceleration
Sharma, Rakesh Chandmal, Sharma, Sunil Kumar, Palli, Srihari, Rallabandi, Sivasankara Raju, Sharma, Neeraj
Journal Article
Elongation Prediction of Die-Cast Aluminum Alloy Based on 3D Convolutional Neural Network Model05-18-04-003204/09/2025
This study aims to predict the impact of porosities on the variability of elongation in the casting Al-10Si-0.3Mg alloy using machine learning methods. Based on the dataset provided by finite element method (FEM) modeling, two machine learning algorithms including artificial neural network (ANN) and 3D convolutional neural network (3D CNN) were trained and compared to determine the optimal model. The results showed that the mean squared error (MSE) and determination coefficient (R2) of 3D CNN on the validation set were 0.01258/0.80, while those of ANN model were 0.28951/0.46. After obtaining the optimal prediction model, 3D CNN model was used to predict the elongation of experimental specimens. The elongation values obtained by experiments and FEM simulation were compared with that of 3D CNN model. The results showed that for samples with elongation smaller than 9.5%, both the prediction accuracy and efficiency of 3D CNN model surpassed those of FEM simulation.
Zhang, Jin-sheng, Zheng, Zhen, Zhao, Xing-zhi, Gong, Fu-jian, Huang, Guang-sheng, Xu, Xiao-min, Wang, Zhi-bai, Yang, Yutong
Journal Article
Potential of Tire Prediction Modeling in Virtual Prototyping: A Review2025-01-828004/01/2025
Virtual prototyping enables tires to be involved in automotive research and development (R&D) at an early stage, eliminating the trial-and-error process of physical tire samples and effectively reducing time and costs. Semi-empirical/empirical tire models are commonly used to evaluate vehicle-tire virtual mating. To parameterize these models, finite element (FE) simulations are necessary, involving combinations of sideslip, camber, and longitudinal slip under various loads. This paper identifies that when multiple inputs are combined, the FE simulation conditions become complex and numerous, presenting a significant challenge in virtual prototyping applications. Through an extensive analysis of more than ten tire prediction modeling methods and models in detail, this paper demonstrates the significant potential of tire prediction modeling in addressing this challenge. We begin with an overview of the current state of research in tire virtual prototyping, reviewing its application
Yin, Hengfeng, Suo, Yanru, Lu, Dang, Xia, Danhua, Min, Haitao
Technical Paper
Research on the Boundary of Pedestrian Leg Impactor Test in Low-Speed Passive and Active Conditions2025-01-873504/01/2025
With the widespread application of the Automatic Emergency Braking System (AEB) in vehicles, its impact on pedestrian safety has received increasing attention. However, after the intervention of AEB, the kinematic characteristics of pedestrian leg collisions and their corresponding biological injury responses also change. At the same time, in order to accurately evaluate the pedestrian protection performance of vehicles, the current assessment regulations generally use advanced pedestrian protection leg impactors (aPLI) and rigid leg impactors (TRL) to simulate the movement and injury conditions of pedestrian legs. Based on this, in order to explore the collision boundary conditions and changes in injury between vehicles and APLI and TRL leg impactors under the action of AEB, this paper first analyzes the current passive and active assessment conditions. Secondly, the simulation software LS-DYNA is used to build a finite element model of APLI and TRL impactor-vehicle collisions to
Ye, Bin, Hong, Cheng, Wan, Xinming, Liu, Yu, Cheng, James, Long, Yongchen, Hao, Haizhou
Technical Paper
Study on Ergonomic Design Optimization and NVH Characteristics of Baja Racing Car2025-01-861204/01/2025
As a kind of off-road racing car, the driving condition of Baja is extremely bad. In order to allow the driver to control the vehicle well in complex working conditions, it is particularly important to provide a comfortable and convenient driving space and handling space for the driver. In this paper, firstly, RAMSIS is used to carry out the ergonomics verification of the racing car from the comfort analysis, reachable area analysis and visual field analysis, and optimize the design of the cockpit layout of the Baja racing car. Then the NVH characteristics of the Baja racing car frame are studied, and the 12-order modal results are obtained by finite element analysis and simulation. Then the natural frequency of the frame is measured by experiments, and the experimental results are verified to match the theoretical values. The research shows that the above steps can design a comfortable driving posture and operating space for the racer and provide experience for the future layout of
Liu, Silang
Technical Paper
Modeling and Prediction of Truck Tire Temperature Using Advanced Computational Techniques2025-01-875804/01/2025
This paper investigates the development of a Finite Element model of a Mixed Service Drive truck tire sized 315/80R22.5 equipped with thermal simulating properties. The physical experiments were performed at a high-speed track in Hällered, Sweden for the truck combination travelling at a constant speed of 80 km/h. For this investigation, the Gross Combination Weight is approximately 42 metric tons. In the Finite Element Analysis environment, ESI Virtual Performance Solutions, the truck tire is designed with hyperelastic Ogden solid rubber definitions. The Ogden material definition is used in this application as it is more suitable to perform thermal and wear analysis within the Finite Element environment. The Finite Element truck tire model is simulated to increase in two different temperature rates. The truck tire model simulates the thermal build-up over time for select tires on a High-Capacity transport truck combination, particularly a driven tire on the tractor. Finite element
Ly, Alfonse, Collings, William, El-Sayegh, Zeinab, El-Gindy, Moustafa, Johansson, Inge, Oijer, Fredrik
Technical Paper
Barrier Weight Prediction for Vehicle Compatibility in North America Market Using Finite Element Analysis2025-01-862104/01/2025
The proliferation of the electric vehicle (EVs) in the US market led to an increase in the average vehicle weight due to the assembly of the larger high-voltage (HV) batteries. To comply with this weight increase and to meet stringent US regulations and Consumer Ratings requirements, Vehicle front-end rigidity (stiffness) has increased substantially. This increased stiffness in the larger vehicles (Large EV pickups/SUVs) may have a significant impact during collision with smaller vehicles. To address this issue, it is necessary to consider adopting a vehicle compatibility test like Euro NCAP MPDB (European New Car Assessment Program Moving Progressive Deformable Barrier) for the North American market as well. This study examines the influence of mass across vehicle classes and compares the structural variations for each impact class. The Euro NCAP MPDB (European New Car Assessment Program Moving Progressive Deformable Barrier) protocol referenced for this analysis. Our evaluation
Kusnoorkar, Harsha, Koraddi, Basavaraj, Guerrero, Michael, Sripada, Venu Vinod, Tangirala, Ravi
Technical Paper
Dynamic Performance Optimization of Double-Isolation Rubber Mounts Based on Neural Network and Genetic Algorithm Collaboration2025-01-826604/01/2025
As a crucial connecting component between the powertrain and the chassis, the performance of rubber mounts is directly related to the NVH (Noise, Vibration, and Harshness) characteristics of electric vehicles. This paper proposes a double-isolation rubber mount, which, compared to traditional rubber mounts, incorporates an intermediate skeleton and features inner and outer layers of “cross-ribs”. The design parameters can be simplified to: skeleton diameter, skeleton thickness, main rib width, and main rib thickness. To comprehensively evaluate its performance, a finite element analysis (FEA) model of the proposed double-isolation rubber mount was first established in Abaqus, with static stiffness and dynamic performance analyzed separately. The results indicate that, compared to traditional rubber mounts with similar static stiffness, this design effectively controls dynamic stiffness in the high-frequency range. To expand the effective vibration isolation frequency range of the
Xu, Che, Kang, Yingzi, Tu, Xiaofeng, Shen, Dongming
Technical Paper
Analysis of Frequency at Minimum Dynamic Stiffness for a Hydraulic Engine Mount with Floating Decoupler under High Frequency Excitation2025-01-826404/01/2025
The primary functions of mounts include providing structural support, sound insulation, and vibration damping. Dynamic stiffness and loss angle are critical metrics for evaluating their NVH (Noise, Vibration, and Harshness) performance. This paper examines a floating decoupler hydraulic mount featuring a long decoupler membrane track. A nonlinear lumped parameter model is developed to calculate the dynamic stiffness and loss angle. The model incorporates fluid flow in the lower chamber and variations in the support reaction force of the decoupler membrane under switching conditions. Parameters of the nonlinear lumped parameter model, including rubber stiffness, equivalent piston area, and volumetric compliance of the fluid chamber, were analyzed and calculated using the finite element method. The influence of different decoupler membrane track structures on the frequency corresponding to the minimum high-frequency dynamic stiffness was investigated based on the established model. The
Li, Shenghao, Zhang, Shenglan, Yu, Chao, Tu, Xiaofeng, Shangguan, Wenbin
Technical Paper
Research on Path Tracking Control of Electric Towbarless Aircraft Taxiing System under Crosswind Condition2025-01-828304/01/2025
The lateral dynamic and kinematic models of the electric towbarless towing vehicle (TLTV)–aircraft system, incorporating active front steering for the TLTV, are formulated to evaluate the impact of crosswind on the aircraft’s towing trajectory. This analysis considers scenarios with varying towing velocities and crosswind directions and intensities. To mitigate crosswind-induced disturbances affecting the aircraft’s motion, A high-speed and low-speed Model Predictive Control (MPC) strategy for the active front steering of a TLTV is proposed. This strategy is designed to optimize the TLTV’s steering performance under varying operational conditions, addressing the distinct dynamic characteristics of high-speed and low-speed towing scenarios. Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed control method achieves exceptional performance in both speed regulation and path tracking during towing operations.
Zhu, Hengjia, Bai, Zehao, Xu, Yitong, Zhang, Wei
Technical Paper
Integrated Design for Body in White Fabricated by Additive Manufacturing and its Mechanical Performance Analysis2025-01-861304/01/2025
With the development of additive manufacturing technology, the concept of integrated design has been introduced and deeply involved in the research of body design. In this paper, by analyzing the structural characteristics of the electric vehicle body, we designed a body in white with the additive manufacturing process, and analyzed its mechanical properties through finite element method. According to the structural characteristics of the body, the integrated structure was modeled in three dimensions using CATIA. For the mechanical properties of the body, the strength and stiffness of the body structure were simulated and analyzed based on ANSYS Workbench. The results show that for the strength of the body, the maximum stress of the simulation results was compared with the permissible stress, and the maximum stress was calculated to be less than the permissible stress under each working condition. For the body stiffness, the displacement of the body deformation was used to measure, and
Xu, Cheng, Zhang, Ming, Wang, Tao, Zhang, Tang-yun, Cao, Can, Wang, Liangmo
Technical Paper
A Modified Johnson-Cook Model Considering Strain-Temperature Coupling for Welding Simulation of Aluminum Alloy Bumper2025-01-824304/01/2025
The metal inert-gas (MIG) welding technique employed for aluminum alloy automotive bumpers involve a complex thermo-mechanical coupling process at elevated temperatures. Attaining a globally optimal set of model parameters continues to represent a pivotal objective in the pursuit of reliable constitutive models that can facilitate precise simulation of the welding process. In this study, a novel piecewise modified Johnson-Cook (MJ-C) constitutive model that incorporates the strain-temperature coupling has been proposed and developed. A quasi-static uniaxial tensile model of the specimen is constructed based on ABAQUS and its secondary development, with model parameters calibrated via the second-generation non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm (NSGA-II) method. A finite element simulation model for T-joint welding is subsequently established, upon which numerical simulation analyses of both the welding temperature field and post-welding deformation can be conducted. The results
Yi, Xiaolong, Meng, Dejian, Gao, Yunkai
Technical Paper
Study on the Influence Mechanism of Camber on the Linear Zone of Tire Side-Slip Mechanical Properties2025-01-827404/01/2025
The linear region of the side-slip mechanical properties of tires is often used in the simulation of linear monorail models for vehicles, especially in the design of active control systems. Side-slip stiffness is a key parameter in tire side-slip, and is significantly influenced by camber and load. In response to the tire industry's need for efficient acquisition of tire mechanical properties and the development of virtual prototyping technology, this paper proposes a method to address the influence mechanism of camber on side-slip in the study of tire camber side-slip prediction models. This paper analyzes the impact of camber on the linear region of tire side-slip mechanical properties at the microscopic level. It then examines the effect of camber on the side-slip condition from the perspective of tire external characteristics, combined with the tire theoretical model, to map the local characteristics of camber onto the external characteristics of tire side-slip. First, a finite
Yin, Hengfeng, Suo, Yanru, Wu, Haidong, Min, Haitao, Liu, Dekuan
Technical Paper
Study on the Impact of Vehicle Pitch During Braking on Pedestrian Leg Injuries2025-01-874104/01/2025
With the increasing prevalence of Automatic Emergency Braking Systems (AEB) in vehicles, their performance in actual collision accidents has garnered increasing attention. In the context of AEB systems, the pitch angle of a vehicle can significantly alter the nature of collisions with pedestrians. Typically, during such collisions, the pedestrian's legs are the first to come into contact with the vehicle's front structure, leading to a noticeable change in the point of impact. Thus, to investigate the differences in leg injuries to pedestrians under various pitch angles of vehicles when AEB is activated, this study employs the Total Human Model for Safety (THUMS) pedestrian finite element model, sensors were established at the leg location based on the Advanced Pedestrian Legform Impactor (APLI), and a corresponding vehicle finite element model was used for simulation, analyzing the dynamic responses of the pedestrian finite element model at different pitch angles for sedan and Sport
Hong, Cheng, Ye, Bin, Zhan, Zhenfei, Liu, Yu, Wan, Xinming, Hao, Haizhou
Technical Paper
Development and Validation of a Rear Head Surround Foam Performance Specification for Stock Car Racing2025-01-835304/01/2025
Over the last two decades many improvements have been made in stock car racing driver safety. One of these is the head surround, which is rigidly secured to and an integral part of the NASCAR (National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing, LLC) seating environment and serves as an effective restraint for head protection during lateral and rear impacts. However, previous head impact material specifications were optimized for moderate to severe impacts and did not address low severity impacts that occur frequently during typical driving, such as race restart vehicle nose-to-tail contact. This study focused on developing a test methodology for comprehensive evaluation of rear head surround materials for low, moderate and severe impacts. Specifically, this study aimed to formulate a specification that maintains previous material performance during high speed impacts, while decreasing head accelerations at low speed impacts. Quasi-static and dynamic drop tower testing of sample materials
Gray, Alexandra N., Harper, Matthew G., Mukherjee, Sayak, Patalak, John P., Gaewsky, James
Technical Paper
Regression Model based Method for Stiffness Design of Laminated Glasses2025-01-832004/01/2025
This paper presents a new regression model-based method for accurate predictions of stiffness of different glass laminate constructions with a point-load bending test setup. Numerical FEA models have been developed and validated with experimental data, then used to provide training data required for the statistical model. The multi-variable regression method considered six input variables of total glass thickness, thickness ratio of glass plies as well as high-order terms. Highly asymmetrical, hybrid laminates combining a relatively thick soda-lime glass (SLG) ply joined with a relatively thin Corning® Gorilla® Glass (GG) ply were analyzed and compared to standard symmetrical SLG-SLG constructions or a monolithic SLG with the same total glass thickness. Both stiffness of the asymmetrical laminates and the improvement percentage over the standard symmetrical design can be predicted through the model with high precision.
Yu, Chao, Cleary, Thomas, Joubaud, Laurent, kister, Evan, Fisher, W Keith
Technical Paper
Multi-Source Error Analysis for Loading Disk of Suspension Kinematics & Compliance Test Bench2025-01-829104/01/2025
The suspension Kinematics & compliance (K&C) characteristic test bench can simulate the excitation of the road to the wheels under various typical working conditions in a quasi-static manner on the bench, enabling the measurement of the K&C characteristics of the suspension system without knowing the specific suspension structure form, parameters, etc., assisting in the entire design process of the vehicle. In this paper, aiming at various geometric source errors existing in the processing and assembly process of the K&C characteristic test bench, an evaluation method based on the homogeneous transformation matrix is proposed to establish the position error of the center of the end loading disk in the series motion chain. Firstly, the mapping relationship between the position error of the end loading disk in the series mechanism kinematic chain and the assembly error is established by using the homogeneous transformation matrix. Then, the change matrix of the coordinate system from the
Sun, Haihua, Duan, Yupeng, Wu, Jinglai, Zhang, Yunqing
Technical Paper
Design of an Integrated Crash Safety Test Scenario: Rear-End Collision in SUBSEQUENCE of Emergency Braking2025-01-874704/01/2025
The integrated vehicle crash safety design provides longer pre-crash preparation time and design space for the in-crash occupant protection. However, the occupant’s out-of-position displacement caused by vehicle’s pre-crash emergency braking also poses challenges to the conventional restraint system. Despite the long-term promotion of integrated restraint patterns by the vehicle manufacturers, safety regulations and assessment protocols still basically focus on traditional standard crash scenarios. More integrated crash safety test scenarios and testing methods need to be developed. In this study, a sled test scenario representing a moderate rear-end collision in subsequence of emergency braking was designed and conducted. The bio-fidelity of the BioRID II ATD during the emergency braking phase is preliminarily discussed and validated through comparison with a volunteer test. The final forward out-of-position displacement of the BioRID II ATD falls within the range of volunteer
Fei, Jing, Wang, Peifeng, Qiu, Hang, Liu, Yu, Shen, Jiajie, Cheng, James Chih, Zhou, Qing, Tan, Puyuan
Technical Paper
The Effect of Rotor Notches on Air Gap Heat Transfer Coefficient and Electromagnetic Performance in a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor for Traction Applications2025-01-814304/01/2025
This study investigates the impact of various notch geometries on the outer surface of the rotor of an interior permanent magnet synchronous motor intended for traction applications, focusing on improving both its thermal and electromagnetic performances. Traditional motor cooling methods, such as water jackets or oil spray/impingement, typically target the stator and/or end windings, neglecting rotor cooling. As a result, the dissipation of the heat from the rotor is dependent on the heat transfer across the air gap surrounding the rotor, despite air’s poor thermal conductivity, which causes it to act as an insulator. Rotor notches are used to limit the higher order harmonics from air gap flux density which results in decreased torque ripple, cogging torque, noise, and vibration of the machine. While the effect of rotor notches on electromagnetic performance is analyzed, their impact on the thermal management of the motor, particularly the heat transfer coefficient in the air gap
Zajac, Arthur, De Silva, Buddhika, Lee, Sun, Mistry, Jigar, Nasirizarandi, Reza, Jianu, Ofelia, Kar, Narayan
Technical Paper
MBD-FEM Co-Simulation Approach to Assess Strength of Automotive Chassis Components2025-01-831504/01/2025
Automotive chassis components are considered as safety critical components and must meet the durability and strength requirements of customer usage. The cases such as the vehicle driving through a pothole or sliding into a curb make the design (mass efficient chassis components) challenging in terms of the physical testing and virtual simulation. Due to the cost and short vehicle development time requirement, it is impractical to conduct physical tests during the early stages of development. Therefore, virtual simulation plays the critical role in the vehicle development process. This paper focuses on virtual co-simulation of vehicle chassis components. Traditional virtual simulation of the chassis components is performed by applying the loads that are recovered from multi-body simulation (MBD) to the Finite Element (FE) models at some of the attachment locations and then apply constraints at other selected attachment locations. In this approach, the chassis components are assessed
Behera, Dhiren, Li, Fan, Tasci, Mine, Seo, Young-Jin, Schulze, Martin, Kochucheruvil, Binu Jose, Yanni, Tamer, Bhosale, Kiran, Aluru, Phani
Technical Paper
Computational Method of Static and Dynamic Mechanical Properties of a Rolling Lobe Air Spring2025-01-826104/01/2025
To investigate the static and dynamic mechanical properties of air springs and their influencing factors, two models were established in this paper to calculate the static and dynamic mechanical properties of air springs, including a simulation model based on the finite element method and a mathematical calculation model based on thermodynamic theory. First, a performance calculation model for rolling lobe air springs with aluminum tubes was established, which considered the thickness of the bellow and the impact of the inflation and assembly process on the state of the bellow. The static and dynamic mechanical properties of air springs were calculated using this model, including static load-bearing capacity and static/dynamic stiffness. The calculation results showed that both the static characteristics of the air spring under isothermal conditions and the dynamic characteristics under adiabatic conditions were able to be calculated accurately. However, the changes in dynamic
Wang, Sirui, Kang, Yingzi, Xia, Zhao, Yu, Chao, Li, Jianxiang, Shangguan, Wen-Bin
Technical Paper
Finite Element Simulation and Experimental Study of the in-Mold Graining Process2025-01-833004/01/2025
In-Mold Graining (IMG) is an innovative production technology applied to the skin wrapping of automotive interior components. In the design of automotive interior components of door panels and instrument clusters, to overcome process-related problems, such as the thinning of grain patterns and excessive reduction in thickness, simulation of the skin vacuum forming process is required. The Thermoplastic Olefin (TPO) skin material is investigated in this paper, and a viscoelastic mechanical model for this material is established. Dynamic Mechanical Analyzer (DMA) is utilized to perform scan for frequency and temperature, and the tested data is used to obtain key model parameters of the viscoelastic constitutive model. Based on the experimental data, the study explores how to calculate the relaxation time spectrum to describe the viscoelastic properties of TPO material during the vacuum forming process. Numerical simulation of the vacuum forming process of TPO material is conducted using
Chai, Bingji, Guo, Yiming, Xie, Xinxing, Zhang, Qu
Technical Paper
Comprehensive Mechanical Characterization of Prismatic Lithium-Ion Cells2025-01-812904/01/2025
As electric vehicles (EVs) become increasingly prevalent, ensuring the safety of their battery systems is paramount. Lithium-ion batteries, present unique safety challenges due to their high energy density and the potential for failure under certain conditions. There is an extensive amount of research on pouch and cylindrical cells, however, prismatic cells have not received similar attention. This study presents an extensive series of experimental tests conducted on prismatic cells from two different manufacturers. These tests include flat punch, hemispherical punch, axial compression and three-point bending tests, all designed to assess the cells’ mechanical properties and failure behavior. A model was developed simulating the behavior of the cell under local loading scenarios. While this paper focuses primarily on testing methodologies, initial findings and an introductory FEA model, future work will incorporate these experimental results into detailed FEA models across all loading
Patanwala, Huzefa, Song, Yihan, Sahraei, Elham
Technical Paper
Multi-Disciplinary Electric Cargo Scooter Battery Design & Simulation2025-01-812304/01/2025
Evaluating the structural strength and thermal performance of electric vehicle battery packs is crucial for enhancing safety and performance. In two-wheelers, the battery pack must withstand significant vibrational forces, shocks from impacts, and accidental drops, all of which can compromise the battery's structural integrity. A failure in this regard could lead to dangerous outcomes such as short circuits, fire, or even explosions, making the robustness of the battery pack crucial for both safety and performance. Conducting physical vibration, shock, and drop tests on a battery pack is one way of proving the robustness of the design, however it is time and resource consuming leading to an iterative approach of design improvement which also demands stringent safety measures and specialized equipment’s. The present work focuses on computer-aided virtual simulations at the design stage to evaluate the structural integrity of the battery pack assembly, optimize battery design, and reduce
Shinde, Pranav, Balachandran, Karthik, Gandhi, Chaitanya, Mishra, Sonu, Deshmukh, Harish, Karve, Madhura, Chittur, Srikrishna, Das, Alok
Technical Paper
Advanced Methodology for Accelerated Durability Block Cycle Testing of Automotive Rubber Suspension Bushings and Powertrain Mounts2025-01-823604/01/2025
In the field of automotive engineering, the performance and longevity of suspension bushings and powertrain mounts are critical. These components must endure fatigue loads characterized by their variable amplitude, multi-axial nature, and out-of-phase oscillations. The challenge lies in comprehensively characterizing these service loads during the early stages of vehicle production to foresee potential issues that may arise during later stages. Additional complexity in this analysis is introduced by the nonlinear hyperelastic deformation exhibited by natural rubber, a common material used in these components. To address these challenges, original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) and suppliers employ Computer-Aided Engineering (CAE) techniques for fatigue life predictions. These predictions are complemented by physical testing involving what are known as block cycles. However, the results obtained from these approaches often fail to fully represent the real loading conditions that a
Zarrin-Ghalami, Touhid, Datta, Sandip
Technical Paper
A Study on Affections of Different Skull-Brain Interface Modeling Approaches on Intracranial Responses in Finite Element Analysis2025-01-873304/01/2025
The skull-brain interface is structurally complex, and various simplification methods have been employed in existing head models to simulate the interaction between the skull and the brain. The modeling approach of the skull-brain interface determines how loads are transmitted to the interior, which is critical for accurately simulating head injuries. Thus, understanding the impact of current skull-brain interface modeling approaches on intracranial simulation results is significant. This study aims to explore the influence of different skull-brain interface modeling methods on the results of finite element models during the development of Advanced Chinese Human Body Models (AC-HUMs) based on the LS-DYNA solver. By comparing the responses of rigidly bonded connections (tied Contact), failure-allowing bonded contacts (tiebreak Contact), shared nodes, and arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian (ALE) methods under the Nahum 37 test load conditions, the study analyzes the effects of different
Gan, Qiuyu, jiang, Yejie, Junpeng, Xu, Zhou, Runzhou, Zhang, Liying, Jiang, Binhui
Technical Paper
The Influence of Impact Location and Angle on the Dynamic Response of a Large Omnidirectional Child Dummy Head and Neck Complex2025-01-874004/01/2025
Head injuries are a common cause of fatality and long-term impairment in child occupants in motor vehicle crashes. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) has developed the Large Omnidirectional Child (LODC) Anthropomorphic Test Device (ATD) where the head was designed to match pediatric biomechanical impact response targets from previous literature. The purpose of this study was to compare experimental and computational results for eight impact directions at 45-degree increments around the LODC head under two levels of impact severity: low and high, corresponding to nominal velocities of 3.08 mm/ms and 5.42 mm/ms, respectively. The experimental setup consists of the LODC head and neck assembly rigidly attached to a circular fixture plate and a hemispherical-shaped impactor 76.2 mm in diameter. The acceleration and angular velocity responses were measured and computed from the LODC finite element (FE) head CG and compared against the experimental data. Experimental
Challa, Abhishikt, Noll, Scott
Technical Paper
Lightweight Optimization of an Electric Bus Body Frame Based on the C 2 oDE Algorithm2025-01-865404/01/2025
In this work, design optimization for the lightweight of the body frame of a commercial electric bus with the requirements of stiffness, strength and crashworthiness is presented. The technique for order preference by similarity to ideal solution (TOPSIS) is applied to calculate the components that have a great impact on the output response of the static modal model and the rear-end collision model. The thickness of the five components with the highest contribution in the two models is determined as the final design variable. Design of experiment (DOE) is carried out based on the Latin Hypercube sampling method, and then the surrogate models are fitted by the least squares regression (LSR) method based on the DOE sampling data. The error analysis of the surrogate model is carried out to determine whether it can replace the finite element (FE) model for optimization, then the optimization scheme for lightweight optimization of electric bus frame is implemented based on the algorithm of
Yang, Xiujian, Tian, Dekuan, Liu, Jiaqi, Cui, Yan, Lin, Qiang
Technical Paper
Analysis and Validation of Torque Ripple Cancellation to Reduce Electric Motor Noise for Electric Vehicles2025-01-857304/01/2025
The electric motor is a significant source of noise in electric vehicles (EVs). Traditional hardware-based NVH optimization techniques can prove insufficient, often resulting in trade-offs between motor torque or efficiency performance. The implementation of motor control-based torque ripple cancellation (TRC) technology provides an effective and flexible solution to reduce the targeted orders. This paper presents an explanation of the mathematical theory underlying the TRC method, with a particular focus on the various current injection methods, including those that allow up to 4DOFs (degrees-of-freedom). In the case study, the injection of controlled fifth or seventh order current harmonics into a three-phase AC motor is shown to be an effective method for cancelling the most dominant sixth order torque ripple. A dedicated feedforward harmonic current generation module is developed the allows the application of harmonic current commands to a motor control system with adjustable
He, Song, Gong, Cheng, Chang, Le, Peddi, Vinod, Zhang, Peng, GSJ, Gautam
Technical Paper
Numerical Modeling of a Sandwich Structure Integrated with Shear Thickening Fluid (STF) for Impact Energy Absorption2025-01-874504/01/2025
Shear Thickening Fluid (STF) exhibits tunable stiffness under varying loading velocities, making it an ideal candidate for energy absorption in transportation systems subjected to complex loading conditions, such as crash scenarios. Recent research highlights that integrating STF with conventional structures can significantly enhance overall energy absorption performance. In this study, we developed a novel sandwich plate by combining a newly designed bio-inspired 3D periodic structure with STF, aiming to create an advanced energy absorber. A finite element model of this system was developed to simulate the crush tests. Using this numerical model, we conducted additional impact simulations to investigate the effects of impact velocity on key structural responses, including force-displacement curve, as well as energy absorption. The contributions of both the fluid and solid components were analyzed. Our findings indicate that the integrated structure demonstrates superior performance
Zhu, Feng, Deb, Anindya
Technical Paper
Multi-Objective Optimization of the Electric Bus Body Frame Based on the PSO-BP-MOMVO Approach2025-01-865204/01/2025
This paper focuses on the design optimization of a commercial electric bus body frame with steel-aluminum heterogeneous material orienting the performances of strength, crashworthiness and body lightweight. First, the finite element (FE) model of the body frame is established for static and side impact analysis, and the body frame is partitioned into several regions according to the thickness distribution of the components. The thicknesses of each region are regarded as the variables for the sensitivity analysis by combining the relative sensitivity method and the Sobol index method, and nine variables to which the performance indexes are more sensitive are selected as the final design variables for design optimization. Then the surrogate models are developed, and in order to improve the accuracy of the surrogate models, a model-constructing method called the particle swarm optimization BP neural network (PSO-BP) data regression prediction is proposed and formulated. In this method
Yang, Xiujian, Tian, Dekuan, Cui, Yan, Lin, Qiang, Song, Yi
Technical Paper
A Study on Affections of Active Neck Muscle Force on Neck Injury Responses in Frontal Impact with Automatic Emergency Braking Conditions2025-01-874204/01/2025
Neck injury is one of the most common injuries in traffic accidents, and its severity is closely related to the posture of the occupant at the time of impact. In the current era of smart vehicle, the triggered AEB and the occupant's active muscle force will cause the head and neck to be out of position which has significant affections on the occurrence and severity of neck injury responses. Therefore, it is very important to study the influences of active muscle force on neck injury responses in in frontal impact with Automatic Emergency Braking conditions. Based on the geometric characteristics of human neck muscles in the Zygote Body database, the reasonable neck muscle physical parameters were obtained firstly. Then a neck finite element model (FEM) with active muscles was developed and verified its biofidelity under various impact conditions, such as frontal, side and rear-end impacts. Finally, using the neck FEM with or without active muscle force, a comparative study was
Junpeng, Xu, Gan, Qiuyu, Jiang, Binhui, Zhu, Feng
Technical Paper
A New Inverse Method for the Determination of Mechanical Properties of an Angle-Ply Composite Laminate by the CLPT2025-01-832304/01/2025
Utilization of fiber-reinforced composite laminates to their full potential requires consideration of angle-ply laminates in structural design. This category of laminates, in comparison with orthotropic laminates, imposes an additional degree of challenge, due to a lack of material principal axes, in determination of elastic laminate effective properties if the same has to be done experimentally. Consequentially, there is a strong inclination to resort to the usage of “CLPT” (Classical Laminated Plate Theory) for theoretically estimating the linear elastic mechanical properties including the cross-correlation coefficients coupling normal and shear effects. As an angle-ply laminate is architecturally comprised of layers of biased orthotropic laminas (based on unidirectional or woven bidirectional fibers), an essential prerequisite for the application of CLPT is an a-priori knowledge of elastic mechanical properties of a constituent lamina. It is natural to expect that the properties of
Tanaya, Sushree, Deb, Anindya
Technical Paper
Items per page:
1 – 50 of 3410