Browse Topic: Thermal management

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Simulation-Based Investigation and its Experimental Validation of the Thermal Behaviour of a Battery Electric City Bus2025-01-0266To be published on 07/02/2025
Electrification of city busses is an important factor for decarbonisation of the public transport sector. Due to its strictly scheduled routes and regular idle times, the public transport sector is an ideal use case for battery electric vehicles (BEV). In this context, the thermal management has a high potential to decrease the energy demand or to increase the vehicles range. The thermal management of an electric city bus controls the thermal behaviour of the components of the powertrain, such as motor and inverters, as well as the conditioning of the battery system and the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) of the drivers’ front box and the passenger room. The focus of the research is the modelling of the thermal behaviour of the important components of an electric city bus in MATLAB/Simscape including real-world driving cycles and the thermal management. The heating of the components, geometry and behaviour of the cooling circuits as well as the different mechanisms of
Schäfer, Henrik, Meywerk, Martin, Hellberg, Tobias
Technical Paper
Modular Thermal Management Framework for Electric Drive System Development2025-01-0262To be published on 07/02/2025
The automotive industry is undergoing a major shift from internal combustion engines (ICE) to hybrid (HEV) and battery-electric vehicles (BEV), which has led to significant advancements and increased complexity in drivetrain design and thermal management systems. This complexity reflects the growing need to optimize energy efficiency, extend vehicle range, and ensure system reliability in modern electric vehicles. At the Institute of Automotive Engineering, a specialized synthesis tool for drivetrain optimization is used to identify the best drivetrain configurations based on specific boundaries and requirements. Building up on this toolchain a modular and adaptable thermal management framework has been developed, addressing another critical aspect of vehicle and drive development: efficient thermal circuit layout and its impact on energy consumption and overall system reliability. The thermal framework emphasizes the dynamic interactions between key components, such as electric
Notz, Fabian, Sturm, Axel, Sander, Marcel, Kässens, Christoph, Henze, Roman
Technical Paper
Investigation on Thermal Management of Heavy-Duty Commercial FCEV with Focus on Vehicle System Efficiency2025-01-0265To be published on 07/02/2025
The primary approach to meet the objectives of the EU Heavy Duty CO2 Regulation involves decarbonizing the road transport sector by battery electric vehicles (BEV) or hydrogen-fueled vehicles. Even though the well-to-wheel efficiency of hydrogen-fueled powertrains like fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) and H2-internal combustion engines (H2-ICE) is much lower in comparison to BEV, they are better suited for on-road heavy-duty trucks, long haul transport missions and regions with scarce charging infrastructure. Hence, this paper focuses on heavy-duty FCEVs and their overall energetic efficiency enhancement by intelligently managing energy transfer across coolant circuit boundaries through waste heat recovery, while ensuring that all relevant components remain within required temperature boundaries under both cold and hot ambient conditions. Results were obtained using a 1D-model that comprises all thermal fluid circuits (refrigerant, coolant, air) created through GT-Suite software
Uhde, Sophia, Langhorst, Thorsten, Wuest, Marcel, Naber, Dirk
Technical Paper
Experimental Investigation of Factors Influencing Thermal Runaway in Lithium-Ion Battery Cells2025-01-0306To be published on 07/02/2025
In the fast-paced automotive development environment, experimental testing is often constrained by time and budget limitations. Consequently, tests are frequently conducted to meet regulatory requirements, industry standards, or internal guidelines. This leads to minimalistic testing approaches such as "One Factor at a Time" (OFAT) or "Trial and Error", which fail to capture parameter interactions and system complexities. This study investigates the critical factors influencing the thermal runaway behavior of lithium-ion battery cells under controlled experimental conditions. A statistical full-factorial experimental design was implemented to evaluate the impact of state of charge (SoC), heating trigger power, and cell capacity. The experiments, conducted using an autoclave setup, allowed for precise control of external conditions and detailed measurement of thermal and mechanical responses. The cells investigated are automotive-grade lithium-ion cells from development projects
Ceylan, Deniz, Kulzer, André Casal, Winterholler, Nina, Weinmann, Johannes, Schiek, Werner
Technical Paper
Noise analysis and optimization of thermal management integrated module2025-01-0081To be published on 05/05/2025
Thermal Management Integration Module (TMIM), which comprises components such as water pumps, runner boards, brackets, sensors, etc., is a multifunctional integrated component for electric vehicles. However, the water pump generates an excitation over a wide range of frequencies due to a wide range of speed variations. This excitation causes the TMIM to vibrate and generate noise. In this study, a TMIM that generates noise is studied and analyzed. Using the TMIM of an electric vehicle as a case study, a full-vehicle experimental test was conducted, revealing that the noise originates from the integration module. The finite element method is used to analyze the cause of noise generation. Given the characteristics of the TMIM, which comprise many components, high integration, and a complex structure, this paper simplifies the bracket, heat exchanger, sensor, and other components using the centralized mass point method. The modal state of the TMIM is obtained by impact hammer testing the
Xu, Shenao
Technical Paper
Electric compressor integration noise influence in Battery Electric Vehicles2025-01-0075To be published on 05/05/2025
Within the automotive industry’s shift to Battery Electric Vehicles, in order to meet the global zero emission target, thermal management systems are key aspects to address. For instance, vehicle cooling requirements are reinforced to take into account the cabin comfort as well as battery management performances. Consequently to the increased cooling requirements, the critical component that is the Electric Drive Compressor, must operate at higher speeds and refrigerant pressures to achieve these targets. This trend results in increased noise levels which might occur inside the car cabin and outside. In this paper, noise investigations were performed on different Battery Electric Vehicles to assess the behavior of the electric compressor within a temperature controlled environment. Then, the electric compressors alone were investigated on specific test benches with compressor load units. The vehicle level assessment highlighted significant noise differences between vehicles. Further
Bennouna, Saad, Yamayoshi, Itsukyo, Del Valle, Edward
Technical Paper
Powering the Future of Sustainable Flight2025-01-0147To be published on 05/02/2025
Eaton Aerospace is collaborating with original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) on the advancement of technologies to increase aircraft efficiency, enable aircraft electrification, and reduce carbon emissions. Leveraging our expertise as an intelligent power management company, Eaton’s products and research include hydraulic power packs, electromechanical actuation (EMA), thermal management systems, and sustainable aviation fuel (SAF). Eaton Blended Power TM systems improve efficiency through eliminating all centralized hydraulic circuits with distributed power that is provided by a combination of hydraulic power packs and EMA for a More Electric Aircraft (MEA). EMA systems, including electrical synchronization, eliminate the usage of hydraulics and provide additional functionality that benefits the flight efficiency of the aircraft. With MEA comes higher energy and thermal densities, resulting in the need for advanced thermal management. Eaton’s scalable and modular thermal management
Skinner, Jeff, Proul, Margaret, Devan, Stephen, Clendenin, Laura, Hutchinson, Lewis, Masson, Andrew, May, Frank, Momotiuk, Andy, Zuzelski, Chris
Technical Paper
Assessing Lithium-ion Battery Functionality Post-Thermal Management with Water Mist2024-32-012204/18/2025
The danger of lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles (EVs) is intensified when they are used at inappropriate temperatures, leading to self-heating and eventually contributing to thermal runaway. Nevertheless, there is uncertainty through the safety of reusing batteries after they have been exposed to heat damage and water mist from fire extinguishers. To address these concerns, this study aimed to experimentally investigate the impact of temperature on batteries and introduce a thermal management using a water mist. Subjecting a battery to a temperature of 100°C for a duration of 39 minutes can immediately detect inoperability from a sudden drop in voltage. The use of water mist was proposed to rapidly mitigate the heat production inside the battery. The state of health (SOH) and the impedance were employed to confirm the battery’s functionality after exposure to thermal abuse and water spraying. The SOH of fresh cells was measured as a reference line for comparison to tested
Trinuruk, Piyatida, Patthathum, Pathomporn, Jumnongjit, Apiwit
Technical Paper
SAE Truck & Off-Highway Engineering: April 202525TOFHP0404/10/2025
Designs on a diverse powertrain future Perkins details range of development efforts to power future off-highway machines, from clean-sheet diesel to hybrid-electric and hydrogen combustion. Autonomous trucking tech hits high gear While some developers of autonomous technology for commercial trucks have stalled out, there's renewed energy to deliver augmented ADAS and automated driving systems to mass production. Autonomous quarry haulage in high demand Komatsu works with Pronto to upfit a growing fleet of haul trucks operating at Komatsu's Arizona Proving Grounds and customer sites. Editorial Hydrogen is hitting some headwinds Cummins unveils new B7.2 diesel engine Artificial intelligence being schooled for mining applications FPT's 37-kWh battery pack dives into marine market Mitsubishi Fuso repurposes EV batteries for energy storage systems First drive: REE Automotive's electrifying P7 delivery chassis Kalmar launches 3rd-gen electric terminal tractor Product Briefs SPOTLIGHTS
Magazine Issue
3D Modeling of Thermal Runaway in Pouch Cells: Effects of Surface Heating and Heating Rates2025-01-855904/01/2025
Thermal runaway in battery cells presents a critical safety concern, emphasizing the need for a thorough understanding of thermal behavior to enhance battery safety and performance. This study introduces a newly developed AutoLion 3D thermal runaway model, which builds on the earlier AutoLion 1D framework and offers significantly faster computational performance compared to traditional CFD models. The model is validated through simulations of the heat-wait-search mode of the Accelerating Rate Calorimeter (ARC), accurately predicting thermal runaway by matching experimental temperature profiles from peer-reviewed studies. Once validated, the model is employed to investigate the thermal behavior of 3D LFPO cells under controlled heating conditions, applying heat to one or more surfaces at a time while modeling heat transfer from non-heated surfaces. The primary objective is to understand how these localized heating patterns impact temperature profiles, including average core temperatures
Hariharan, Deivanayagam, Gundlapally, Santhosh
Technical Paper
Optimization Method of Phase Change Energy Storage Device for Electric Vehicle Batteries based on Numerical Simulation2025-01-860304/01/2025
Phase change energy storage devices are extensively utilized in latent heat thermal energy storage and hold significant potential for application in the thermal management of automotive batteries. By harnessing the high-density energy storage capabilities of phase change materials to absorb heat released by the batteries, followed by timely release and utilization, there is a substantial improvement in energy efficiency. However, the thermal conductivity of medium and low temperature phase change materials is poor, leading to its inefficient utilization. This paper focuses on optimizing the structure of a phase change heat exchanger in a phase change energy storage device to improve its performance. A basic design of the phase change heat exchanger is used as an example, and fin structure is added to enhance its heat exchange capabilities. A predictive surrogate model is built using numerical simulation, with the dimension and number of fins as design variables, and heat flow density
Zhang, Haonan, Sun, Mingzhe, Zheng, Haoyun, Zhang, Tianming
Technical Paper
Impact of Thermal and Electrical Dissimilarities on Battery Module Aging2025-01-817304/01/2025
Battery cell aging and loss of capacity are some of the many challenges facing the widespread implementation of electrification in mobility. One of the factors contributing to cell aging is the dissimilarities of individual cells connected in a module. This paper reports the results of several aging experiments using a mini-module consisting of seven 5 Ah 21700 lithium-ion battery cells connected in parallel. The aging cycle comprised a constant current-constant voltage charge cycle at a 0.7C C-rate, followed by a 0.2C constant current discharge, spanning the useful voltage range from minimum to maximum according to the cell manufacturer. Charge and discharge events were separated by one-hour rest periods and were repeated for four weeks. Weekly reference performance tests were executed to measure static capacity, pulse power capability and resistance at different states of charge. All diagnostics were normalized with respect to their starting numbers to achieve a percentage change
Swarts, Andre, Salvi, Swapnil S., Juarez Robles, Daniel
Technical Paper
Temperature Control of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell Thermal Management System Based on Fuzzy PID2025-01-818704/01/2025
Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is widely used in transportation and high-efficiency energy systems for their high power density and rapid start-up capability. The temperature control of its thermal management system is characterized by slow response and system oscillation, and the temperature control process suffers from problems such as large temperature fluctuations and slow temperature rise during cold starts. To effectively control the fuel cell thermal management system, this paper proposes a fuzzy PID-based control strategy to optimize the temperature control of the stack by comprehensively controlling the cooling fan, thermostat, temperature control valve, and heat components. By modeling the 60kW PEMFC thermal management system on the MATLAB/Simulink platform, the flow distribution and heat exchange of each component are analyzed and the optimized fuzzy control strategy is compared with the traditional PID control strategy. The simulation results show that the
Zhang, Yilong, Zhang, Yunqing, Guo, Jun, Wu, Jinglai
Technical Paper
Comprehensive Vehicle Level Thermal Management Simulation Platform: Development and Applications2025-01-814904/01/2025
In modern vehicles, effective thermal management is crucial for regulating temperatures across various components and sub-systems, ensuring optimal performance, efficiency, safety, and passenger comfort. As the industry shifts towards reducing carbon emissions, powertrain electrification - encompassing electric and hybrid vehicles - has emerged as a prominent trend. This transition introduces greater complexities, as the powertrain system must now precisely control the temperatures of not only traditional components but also batteries, power electronics, and motors. Typically, the performance of vehicle-level thermal management systems is fully evaluated only after physical prototypes are developed and tested, particularly during summer and winter road trials. Conducting development and validation at such a late stage in the development process significantly increases both development risks and costs. To address these challenges, a comprehensive vehicle-level thermal management
Xu, Zheng, Qiu, Jie, Lu, Yuan, Wang, Yingzhen
Technical Paper
Materials Innovation in Thermal Management: Advancing Aluminum Alloy Technologies for the Next-Generation Electrical Vehicle Battery Cold Plate2025-01-816204/01/2025
The rapid expansion of the global electric vehicle (EV) market has significantly increased the demand for advanced thermal management solutions. Among these, the battery cold plate is a critical component, essential for maintaining optimal battery temperatures and ensuring efficient operation. As EV batteries increase in size, the thermal management requirements become more complex, necessitating the development of new alloys with enhanced strength and thermal conductivity. These advancements are crucial for the effective dissipation of heat and the ability to withstand the mechanical stresses associated with larger and more powerful batteries. The evolving performance demands of EVs are driving material innovation within the thermal management sector. This study aims to explore the global heat exchanger market trends from a material perspective, focusing on the evolution of the mechanical and thermal properties. Specifically, we investigated the transition from the traditional AA3003
Jalili, Mehdi, Wang, Xu, Razm-poosh, Hadi
Technical Paper
Electro-Thermal Optimal Control for Driver-Centric DC Fast Charging of Electric Vehicles2025-01-837404/01/2025
Charging a battery electric vehicle at extreme temperatures can lead to battery deterioration without proper thermal management. To avoid battery degradation, charging current is generally limited at extreme hot and cold battery temperatures. Splitting the wall power between charging and the thermal management system with the aim of minimizing charging time is a challenging problem especially with the strong thermal coupling with the charging current. Existing research focus on formulating the battery thermal management control problem as a minimum charging time optimal control problem. Such control strategy force the driver to charge with minimum time and higher charging cost irrespective of their driving schedule. This paper presents a driver-centric DCFC control framework by formulating the power split between thermal management and charging as an optimal control problem with the goal of improving the wall-to-vehicle energy efficiency. Proposed energy-efficient charging strategy
Gupta, Shobhit, Kang, Jun-Mo, Zhu, Yongjie, Lee, Chunhao, Zanardelli, Wesley
Technical Paper
Analysis of Coolant Flowing and Heat Transfer Performance in High Voltage Heater System2025-01-819404/01/2025
A method for performance calculation and experimental method of a high voltage heater system in electric vehicles is proposed. Firstly, heater outlet temperature and pressure drop of the heater are used as metrics to compare simulation results with experimental data, thereby validating the established model. Then, simulations are performed on two heater flow channel configurations: a cavity flow channel and a cooling fin flow channel. It is observed that the latter significantly reduces the heating plate temperature. This reduction enhances the protection of heating elements and extends their operational lifespan, demonstrating the advantages of incorporating cooling fins into the flow channel structure. The optimization variables for multi-objective optimization include the fin unit length, fin height, fin thickness, fin width, and spacing between two adjacent rows of fins. The optimization objectives include pressure drop, heat transfer efficiency, and heating plate temperature
Gong, Ming, Wang, Xihui, Wang, Dongdong, Shangguan, Wen-Bin
Technical Paper
Modeling and Simulation Analysis of an Electric Vehicle in Normal and Hot Ambient Conditions: Energy Consumption and Driving Range2025-01-815104/01/2025
With better performance and usage of clean and renewable energy, electric vehicles have ushered in more and more consumers’ favor nowadays. However, insufficient driving range especially in hot and cold ambient conditions still greatly restricts the extensive application of electric vehicles. This paper presents a methodology of establishing multi-discipline coupled full vehicle model in AMESim to investigate the energy consumption and driving range of an electric vehicle in normal and hot ambient conditions. Full vehicle energy consumption test was carried out in the climate chamber to check the accuracy of simulation results. Firstly, basic framework of the full vehicle model established in AMESim was introduced. Next, modeling details of sub-systems including vehicle dynamic system, electrical system, coolant circuit system, air-conditioning system and control strategy were illustrated. Then, full vehicle energy consumption tests were carried out in 23°C and 38°C ambient conditions
Zhou, Shuai, Liu, Huaiju, Yu, Huili, Yan, Xu, Yan, Junjie
Technical Paper
Design of an Air-Liquid Coupled Thermal Management System for Battery Packs in Energy Storage Cabinets2025-01-816804/01/2025
Efficient thermal management is essential for maintaining the performance and safety of large-capacity battery packs. To overcome the limitations of traditional standalone air or liquid cooling methods, which often result in inadequate cooling and uneven temperature distribution, a hybrid air-liquid cooling structure was designed. A three-dimensional model was developed, and heat transfer and fluid flow characteristics were analyzed using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations. Experimental validation was carried out through discharge temperature rise tests on individual battery cells and flow resistance tests on the liquid cooling plate. The thermal performance of the hybrid system was compared to that of standalone cooling methods under various discharge rates. The results indicated that the hybrid system significantly enhanced cooling performance, reducing the maximum temperature difference by 5.54°C and 3.37°C, and the peak temperature by 11.66°C and 4.5°C, compared to air
Li, Hao, Guo, Yiming, Zhou, Fupeng, Li, Kunyuan, Shangguan, Wen-Bin
Technical Paper
Experimental Analysis of Battery Thermal Management Techniques for Electric Vehicle Lithium-Ion Batteries Using MATLAB Simulink, Simscape, and Stateflow Simulations2025-01-816504/01/2025
The use of lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles marks a major progression in the automotive sector. Energy storage systems extensively make use of these batteries. The extended life cycle, low self-discharge rates, high energy density, and eco-friendliness of lithium-ion batteries are well-known. However, Temperature sensitivity has an adverse effect on lithium-ion battery safety, durability, and performance. Thus, maintaining ideal operating conditions and reducing the chance of thermal runaway depend heavily on efficient thermal management. To address this, experimental study was conducted on various battery thermal management techniques, including active, passive, and hybrid approaches. These techniques were investigated for their cooling efficiencies under different operating conditions. The electro-thermal behavior of cylindrical lithium-ion battery cells, battery packs, and supervisory control techniques were simulated in the study using MATLAB Simulink, Simscape, and
Thangaraju, Shanmuganathan, N, Meenakshi, Ganesan, Maragatham
Technical Paper
Model-Predictive Control for Heat Pump-Based Battery Thermal Management in Off-Road Autonomous Electrified Vehicles During Transient Operation2025-01-818404/01/2025
The shift towards hybrid and electric powertrains in off-road vehicles aims to enhance mobility, extend range, and improve energy efficiency. However, heat pump-based battery thermal management systems in these vehicles continue to consume significant energy, impacting overall range and efficiency. Effective thermal management is essential for maintaining battery performance and safety, particularly in extreme conditions. Although high-fidelity models can capture the complex dynamics of heat pumps, real-time control within model-based optimization frameworks often depends on simplified models, which can degrade system performance. To address this, we propose a novel data-driven grey box control-oriented model (COM) that accurately represents the thermal dynamics of a vapor-compression refrigeration-based heat pump system. This COM is integrated into a model-predictive control (MPC) framework, optimizing thermal management during transient and burst-power operations of the battery pack
Sundar, Anirudh, Ghate, Atharva, Zhu, Qilun, Prucka, Robert, Ruan, Yeefeng, Figueroa-Santos, Miriam, Barron, Morgan
Technical Paper
Enhancing and Validating Numerical Models for Oil-Jet Cooing on Corrugated Surfaces of Electric Motor Windings2025-01-814804/01/2025
The U.S. DRIVE Electrical and Electronics Technical Team has set a goal for 2025 to achieve a power density of 33 kW/L for electric vehicle (EV) motors [1]. The increase in motor power density is highly dependent on effective thermal management within the system, making active cooling techniques like oil-jet impingement essential for continued advancements. Due to the time and expense of physical experimentation, numerical simulations have become a preferred method for design testing and optimization. These simulations often simplify the motor-winding surface into a smooth cylinder, overlooking the actual corrugated surface due to windings, thus reducing computational resources and mesh complexity. However, the coil's corrugated surface affects flow turbulence and heat transfer rates. This study utilizes three-dimensional Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations to investigate the impingement-cooling of an Automatic Transmission Fluid (ATF) jet on a corrugated surface that
Mutyal, Jayesh Ramesh, Haghnegahdar, Ahmad, Gurunadhan, Mohana, Konangi, Santosh, Champhekar, Omkar
Technical Paper
Flow and Heat Transfer Performance Analysis of Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger in Electric Vehicles2025-01-815704/01/2025
In driving condition, the electric drive system of electric vehicles generates significant heat, which increases temperature of the motor, leading to reduced performance and energy loss. To manage the motor temperature and recover energy, a plate-fin heat exchanger (PFHE) is used to facilitate heat exchange between the electric drive system and the vehicle's thermal management system. In this study, Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) method was used to investigate the fin structure on thermal flow performance within the PFHE. The mathematical models of pressure drop and heat transfer of plate-fin heat exchanger are established in this paper, and an empirical formula for the friction factor was derived by using test data. The NTU method was applied to fit the formula of convective heat transfer coefficient, enabling the derivation of an empirical formula for the Colburn factor. A CFD simulation model was developed for a local heat exchange unit, considering the generic boundary
Yin, Jintai, Yin, Zhihong, Lu, Xuan, Wang, Mengmeng, Liu, Qian
Technical Paper
Control Trajectory Optimization of Electric Vehicle Heat Pump-Based Cabin Heating System2025-01-814404/01/2025
Optimal control of battery electric vehicle thermal management systems is essential for maximizi ng the driving range in extreme weather conditions. Vehicles equipped with advanced heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems based on heat pumps with secondary coolant loops are more challenging to control due to actuator redundancy and increased thermal inertia. This paper presents the dynamic programming (DP)-based offline control trajectory optimization of heat pump-based HVAC aimed at maximizing thermal comfort and energy efficiency. Besides deriving benchmark results, the goal of trajectory optimization is to gain insights for practical hierarchical control strategy modifications to further improve real-time controllers’ performance. DP optimizes cabin inlet air temperature and flow rate to set the trade-off between thermal comfort and energy efficiency while considering the nonlinear dynamics and operating limits of HVAC system in addition to typically considered cabin
Cvok, Ivan, Deur, Josko
Technical Paper
The Effect of Rotor Notches on Air Gap Heat Transfer Coefficient and Electromagnetic Performance in a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor for Traction Applications2025-01-814304/01/2025
This study investigates the impact of various notch geometries on the outer surface of the rotor of an interior permanent magnet synchronous motor intended for traction applications, focusing on improving both its thermal and electromagnetic performances. Traditional motor cooling methods, such as water jackets or oil spray/impingement, typically target the stator and/or end windings, neglecting rotor cooling. As a result, the dissipation of the heat from the rotor is dependent on the heat transfer across the air gap surrounding the rotor, despite air’s poor thermal conductivity, which causes it to act as an insulator. Rotor notches are used to limit the higher order harmonics from air gap flux density which results in decreased torque ripple, cogging torque, noise, and vibration of the machine. While the effect of rotor notches on electromagnetic performance is analyzed, their impact on the thermal management of the motor, particularly the heat transfer coefficient in the air gap
Zajac, Arthur, De Silva, Buddhika, Lee, Sun, Mistry, Jigar, Nasirizarandi, Reza, Jianu, Ofelia, Kar, Narayan
Technical Paper
Bio-Based Phase Change Material for Electric Vehicle Battery Thermal Management using Copper Fins: A Numerical Investigation2025-01-817104/01/2025
Electric vehicles (EVs) are gaining popularity due to their zero tailpipe emissions, superior energy efficiency, and sustainable nature. EVs have various limitations, and crucial one is the occurrence of thermal runaway in the battery pack. During charging or discharging condition of battery pack may result in thermal runaway condition. This promotes the requirement of effective cooling arrangement in and around the battery pack to avoid localized peak temperature. In the present work, thermal management of a 26650 Lithium iron phosphate (LFP) cell using natural convection air cooling, composite biobased phase change material (CBPCM) and its combination with copper fins is numerically investigated using multi-scale multi dimension - Newman, Tiedenann, Gu and Kim (MSMD-NTGK) battery model in Ansys Fluent at an ambient temperature of 306 K. Natural convection air cooling was found effective at discharge rates of 1C to 3C, maintaining cell temperature below the safe limit of 318 K for 80
Srivastav, Durgesh, Patil, Nagesh Devidas, Shukla, Pravesh Chandra
Technical Paper
Downsizing 12 Volts Battery for EV Using Effective Energy Management Strategies when Vehicle Is Inactive2025-01-819204/01/2025
On electric vehicle the low voltage (nominal 12 volt) battery serves mostly as an energy storage buffer for supporting features and actuators on the 12 volt power supply network. Within an EV, unlike an internal combustion engine car, as there is no cranking requirement needed to be supported by this battery, it presents a significant opportunity for downsizing. In a premium car there are a significant number of features which inhibits the car to go into “deep sleep” and hence remains on a “stand-by” mode of operation. During this period of stand-by the low voltage energy storage system needs to cater for up to 0.4 W when in sleep/standby mode of operation. To sustain longer periods of stand-by mode the low voltage battery needs to have enough stored energy to maintain the appropriate level of state of charge (SOC) so that enough critical threshold of SOC is maintained for 12 volts essential system startup at vehicle restart. This can potentially inhibit downsizing of the low voltage
Dutta, Nilabza, Overs, Sheldon
Technical Paper
Modeling and Control Strategies of the Thermal Management System for Electric Vehicles2025-01-819004/01/2025
The electric vehicle thermal management system is a critical sub-systems of electric vehicles, and has a substantial impact on the driving range. The objective of this paper is to optimize the performance of the heat pump air conditioning system, battery, and motor thermal management system by adopting an integrated design. This approach is expected to effectively improve the COP (Coefficient of Performance) of cabin heating. An integrated thermal management system model of the heat pump air conditioning system, battery, and motor thermal management system is established using AMEsim. Key parameters, such as refrigerant temperature, pressure, and flow rate at the outlet of each component of the system are compared with the measured data to verify the correctness of the model established in this paper. Using the established model, the impact of compressor speed on the heating comfort of the cabin under high-temperature conditions in summer was studied, and a control strategy for rapid
Zhang, Min, Li, Liping, Zhou, Jianhua, Huang, Yu, Zhen, Ran, Shangguan, Wen-Bin
Technical Paper
Research on Heat Dissipation of Cabinet of Electrochemical Energy Storage System2025-01-819304/01/2025
With the increasingly prominent environmental problems and energy crisis, wind power, solar power and other new energy has been rapid development, and energy storage technology is of great significance to the development of new energy. Compared with the power batteries applied in electric vehicles, battery energy storage systems gather a larger number of batteries and a larger scale, usually up to megawatts or 100 megawatts. During the operation of the energy storage system, the lithium-ion battery continues to charge and discharge, and its internal electrochemical reaction will inevitably generate a lot of heat. If the heat is not dispersed in time, the temperature of the lithium-ion battery will continue to rise, which will seriously affect the service life and performance of the battery, and even cause thermal runaway leading to explosion. It is of great significance for promoting the development of new energy technologies to carry out research on the thermal model of lithium-ion
Chen, Jianxiang, Li, Liping, Zhou, Fupeng, Li, Chuncheng, Shangguan, Wen-Bin
Technical Paper
Experimental and Simulation-Based Characterization of Thermal Runaway in Lithium-Ion Batteries Using Altair SimLab®2025-01-814604/01/2025
Thermal runaway is a critical phenomenon in lithium batteries, characterized by a self-sustaining process due to internal chemical reactions, that is triggered once a certain temperature is reached within the cell. This event is often caused by overheating due to charge and discharge cycles and can lead to fires or explosions, posing a significant safety threat. The aim of this study is to induce thermal runaway on single cells in different ways to characterize the phenomenon and validate the simulation models present in Altair SimLab®. The work was conducted in several key phases. Initially, an experimental test was performed in a calorimeter (EV ARC HWS test) to collect temperature data of the Molicel 21700 P45B cell during thermal runaway under adiabatic conditions. These data were used for a simulation on a single cell, allowing a detailed comparison with the experimental results. Subsequently, a test was conducted on a single cell under operational conditions, overheated using a
Giuliano, Luca, Scrimieri, Luigi, Reitano, Simone, Berti Polato, Davide, Ferraris, Alessandro, Comerford, Andrew, Bhatnagar, Saakaar
Technical Paper
Flow Channel Optimization and Performance Analysis of Forced Air-Cooling Thermal Management for Lithium-ion Battery Energy Storage Modules05-18-04-002703/05/2025
The maximum temperature and the maximum temperature difference of lithium battery energy storage systems are of great importance to their lifespan and safety. The energy storage module targeted in this research utilizes a forced air-cooling thermal management system. In this article, the maximum battery temperature, temperature difference, and cooling fan power are used as evaluation indicators. The thermal–fluid coupling simulation technology is utilized to restore the real structure of the module, ensuring the reliability of the simulation results. The P-Q curve is introduced for the boundary conditions of the heat dissipation fan to investigate the influence of the flow channel structure on the airflow volume and distribution. First, the thermal–fluid coupling simulation results of the original structure were compared with the measured parameters. Subsequently, the study on the airflow and temperature distribution of the original flow channel structure reveals that a significant
Guo, YuCheng, Bao, YiDong, Jiang, BingYun, Lu, FeiFei
Journal Article
Advancing Embedded Systems with VITA 93: A New Era in Modular I/O for Aerospace and Defense25AERP03_0103/01/2025
Aerospace and defense system designers are demanding scalable and high-performance I/O solutions. While traditional mezzanine standards have proven reliable, they often fall short of meeting modern bandwidth, size, and flexibility requirements. This challenge is particularly evident in aerospace and defense applications where high-speed data processing must align with stringent size, weight, and power (SWaP) constraints. Current mezzanine solutions also face significant limitations in scalability, thermal management, and I/O density. These constraints can lead to compromised system performance and limited upgrade paths in applications where adaptability is crucial. This article explores how the new VITA 93 (QMC) standard addresses these challenges through its innovative QMC architecture, enabling unprecedented flexibility, scalability, and rugged reliability while maintaining compatibility with existing and future systems. It also covers how VITA 93 (QMC) builds on lessons learned from
Magazine Article
Enhancing E-motor design, thermal efficiency with advanced cooling25AUTP03_0903/01/2025
The acceleration of 800V permanent magnet radial flux e-motors marks a significant leap in the automotive industry. This motor architecture offers increased power density through smaller, lighter designs that spin at higher rpm. However, this advancement brings with it the challenge of efficient thermal management, especially in dissipating heat from the magnet wire within the stator. Effective thermal management is crucial for improving e-motor efficiency. The primary heat sources are the copper-insulated magnet wires, with heat spreading to the slot liners. Engineers have explored various cooling methods, including traditional water jackets using ethylene glycol and water. However, the trend is shifting towards using automatic transmission fluid (ATF) or oilbased fluids for direct cooling, driven by its integration convenience with the e-motor gearbox and inverter systems.
Baleno, Brian
Magazine Article
Advanced silicones for ADAS in light vehicles25AUTP03_0203/01/2025
Material solutions for thermal management, protection and assembly. Today's ADAS designers are adding more electronic components and redundant computing systems to printed circuit boards (PCBs). These heat-generating electronic assemblies are installed in enclosures that provide environmental protection, but the high heat generated by high-performance computing systems can degrade ADAS performance or cause device failure. Not all thermal management materials can withstand temperatures up to 200 C (392 F), and most do not retain their flexibility at elevated temperatures. This creates a problem when PCB components expand and contract at different rates due to mismatches in their coefficients of thermal expansion.
Sootsman, Joseph, Zou, Lu
Magazine Article
Temperature-Dependent Analysis of the Tire–Road Interaction Characteristics for a Passenger Car Tire Using Finite Element Analysis15-18-02-001002/20/2025
In this article, a finite element analysis for the passenger car tire size 235/55R19 is performed to investigate the effect of temperature-dependent properties of the tire tread compound on the tire–road interaction characteristics for four seasons (all-season, winter, summer, and fall). The rubber-like parts of the tire were modeled using the hyperelastic Mooney–Rivlin material model and were meshed with the three-dimensional hybrid solid elements. The road is modeled using the rigid body dry hard surface and the contact between the tire and road is modeled using the non-symmetric node-to-segment contact with edge treatment. At first, the tire was verified based on the tire manufacturer’s data using numerical finite element analysis based on the static and dynamic domains. Then, the finite element analysis for the rolling resistance analysis was performed at three different longitudinal velocities (10 km/h, 40 km/h, and 80 km/h) under nominal loading conditions. Second, the steady
Fathi, Haniyeh, El-Sayegh, Zeinab, Ren, Jing
Journal Article
Study of Different Types of Ventilation and Cooling Systems of Bulb Hydrogenerators in a Three-Dimensional Setting05-18-03-002002/20/2025
The Object of research in the article is the ventilation and cooling system of bulb hydrogenerators. The Subject of study in the article is the design and efficiency of using the cooling system of various structural types for bulb hydro units. The Purpose of the work is to carry out a three-dimensional study of two cooling systems (axial and radial) of the bulb hydro unit of the Kanivskaya HPP with a rated 22 MW. Research Tasks include analysis of the main design solutions for effective cooling of bulb-type hydrogenerators, in particular, the use of radial, axial, and mixed cooling systems; formulation of the main assumptions for the three-dimensional ventilation and thermal calculation of the bulb hydrogenerator; carrying out a three-dimensional calculation for a hydrogenerator with axial ventilation; determining airflow speeds in the channels and temperatures of active parts of the hydrogenerator under the conditions of using discharge fans and without them; carrying out a three
Tretiak, Oleksii, Arefieva, Mariia, Makarov, Pavlo, Serhiienko, Serhii, Zhukov, Anton, Shulga, Iryna, Penkovska, Nataliia, Kravchenko, Stanislav, Kovryga, Anton
Journal Article
Temperature Reduction of Servo Oil Used in Steering System Using Pulsating Heat Pipe2025-28-010402/07/2025
There are various steering technologies are available in market nowadays. Hydraulic Power Steering (HPS) is one of them. As hydraulic name is linked to it the temperature role comes to play. While doing hard cornering the hydraulic oil used to assist the working in steering system get over heated, due to which oil loses its viscosity became one of the major causes of hard steer in trucks. Also, due to limited space the large heat exchanger cannot be used there. So, objective of this Thesis is to examine an effective solution which can be compact in design and at the same time should be effective to solve this problem. After going through literature analysis, we finalize that the Principal of Pulsating Heat Pipe could be a possible solution. So, for that we design different model based on previous research work in Creo and simulate them in Star CCM+ to finalize the optimality.
Saikrishna, VNL, P, Rudresha, Yadav, Satyendra, B, Ruthvika, Vishwasa, Viditha
Technical Paper
Enhancing Flow and Heat Transfer Characteristics in Microchannels with Various Nanofluids2025-28-002402/07/2025
The substantial growth of power converters in electric vehicles necessitates more energy consumption and, as a result, greater heat generation. To avoid the power converter’s excessive heat, an innovative curved microchannel with diamond-shaped and pentagonal cross-sections was developed. The flow and heat transfer characteristics of the Gc3N4/Water (0.3%), Al2O3/Water (0.3%), and Al2O3-Gc3N4/Water (0.3%) hybrid nanofluid were assessed. The experimental investigation was carried out by different mass flow rates of about 0.1 to 0.5 LPM under a uniform heat flux of 50 kW/m2. The heat sink had a cross-sectional area of 80×48mm2. In comparison to the diamond channel heat sink through hybrid nanofluids, findings from experiments resulted that the heat transfer rate and pressure drop for the diamond channel enhanced by 14.2% and 18.9%, respectively. In comparison to Gc3N4/Water and Al2O3/Water nanofluids, the hybrid nanofluid improved the heat transfer rate for the diamond micro channel heat
R L, Krupakaran, Petla, Ratna Kamala, Anchupogu, Praveen, Kala, Lakshmi K, Gangula, Vidyasagar Reddy, Tarigonda, Hariprasad
Technical Paper
Fuel Cell Inlet Temperature Feedback Control Based on the Internal Model Principle2025-01-707301/31/2025
The thermal management system of fuel cells poses considerable challenges, particularly due to large time delays and nonlinear behaviors that complicate effective temperature control of the stack. In response to these challenges, this study introduces a novel fuel cell inlet temperature feedback control method based on the internal model principle, designed to enhance control accuracy. Simulations were conducted using MATLAB/Simulink® to evaluate the performance of both Proportional-Integral (PI) and internal model controllers through various tests, including step response and random condition assessments. The results demonstrated that the proposed internal model controller significantly outperformed traditional PID control in both static and dynamic scenarios. Specifically, during step response testing, the maximum temperature overshoot was minimized to just 1.5°C, with a steady-state error of less than 0.5°C. In dynamic performance testing, the inlet temperature exhibited a rapid
Liu, Shiguang
Technical Paper
Engineering Applications of Predictive Control Algorithms for Thermal Management of Fuel Cell Systems2025-01-708201/31/2025
The advancement of clean energy technology has resulted in the emergence of fuel cells as an efficient and environmentally friendly energy conversion device with a diverse range of potential applications, including those in the fields of transportation and power generation. Among the challenges facing fuel cell technology, thermal management represents a significant technical hurdle. The advancement of innovative thermal management methods and system design is imperative to address issues such as high waste heat. In light of the above, this paper presents a methodology for the application of fuel cell thermal management predictive control algorithms in engineering, with a particular focus on fuel cell engine systems that have been implemented in fuel cell cars. This paper proposes a thermal management control method based on a model predictive control algorithm for proton exchange membrane fuel cell systems. The objective of the methodology is to predict and adjust the thermal
Yu, Zhiyang, Ding, Tianwei, Huang, Xing, Wang, Yupeng, Chen, Guodong
Technical Paper
Research on the Control Strategy of PEMFC Thermal Management System2025-01-707801/31/2025
This paper addresses a series of issues in the thermal management system of proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) during power fluctuations, such as slow system response, insufficient stability, significant temperature fluctuations, and the complexity of coupled control between coolant flow and air flow. A solution is proposed by designing separate Linear Active Disturbance Rejection Controllers (LADRC) for the coolant flow and air flow control loops. A one-dimensional model of the PEMFC thermal management system was established on the LMS AMESIM simulation platform, combined with a hydrogen fuel cell vehicle model and a driver model, fully considering various influencing factors such as vehicle power fluctuations and driver demands. Subsequently, the LADRC control algorithm was developed on the Matlab-Simulink platform, and a co-simulation analysis was performed to compare the control effects of PID control and LADRC under both custom operating conditions and the New European
Zhu, Shaopeng, Mei, Jing, Yang, Lang, Zong, Yajing, Liu, Yunmei, Zhang, Bo, Chen, Huipeng
Technical Paper
Modeling, Simulation and Hardware in the Loop Test of PEM Electrolysis System2025-01-709701/31/2025
PEM electrolysis system has characteristic of excellent performance such as fast response, high electrolysis efficiency, compact design and wide adjustable power range. It provides a sustainable solution for the production of hydrogen, and is well suited to couple with renewable energy sources. In the development process of PEM electrolysis controller, this article originally applied the V-mode development process, including simulation modeling, RCP testing, and HIL testing, which can provide guidance in the practical application of electrolytic hydrogen production. In this paper, we present modeling and simulation study of PEM water electrolysis system. Model of electrolytic cell, hydrogen production subsystem and thermal management subsystem are constructed in Matlab/Simulink. Controller model was designed based on PI control strategy. A rapid prototyping controller with MPC5744 chip was used to develop the control system of electrolytic hydrogen production system. Hardware in the
Hua, Yuwei, Jin, Zhenhua, Tian, Ying, Tao, Yuepeng
Technical Paper
Dynamic Performance Simulation of the Fuel Cell Stack On-Board Vehicle2025-01-708401/31/2025
The dynamic behavior of the water and thermal management are critical to stabilize the performance of the proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) during severe load changes. In this paper, a fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle (FCHEV) dynamic simulation model is established to evaluate the changes in liquid water and temperature distribution inside the fuel cell stack under a vehicle driving cycle conditions. This paper focuses on analyzing the power generation performance of the stack and the dynamic behavior of internal water and heat transfer following the demand of the vehicle. According to the simulation results, the temperature of MEA and cooling water fluctuates greatly, but the temperature of MEA is always higher than the cooling water temperature by about 1.57 degrees Celsius (average value). Compared to the experimental measurements of temperature, the simulation error for the maximum temperature is 3.4% and the simulation error for the average temperature is 4.4%. The
Zhao, Xiaojun, Shen, Xuesong, Wang, Yanbo, Shi, Wangying, Yang, Tao, Shan, Fengxiang, Ma, Xiao, Wang, Xin, Zhang, Yongheng, Pan, Fengwen
Technical Paper
Research on Engine Thermal Management System Modeling and the Control Strategies of an Extended-Range Hybrid Electric Vehicle2025-01-706301/31/2025
A mathematical model of the thermal management system (TMS) for an extended-range hybrid electric vehicle is developed. The variation in engine coolant temperature is examined under different water pump and fan control strategies, and its subsequent impact on engine TMS energy consumption is analyzed. Based on the simulation results of energy consumption under various control parameters, machine learning regression models are constructed, and four different regression algorithms are applied. By incorporating temperature-based optimization into the water pump and fan control strategy, system energy consumption can be effectively reduced. The machine learning regression results indicate that the mathematical model of TMS cannot be simply regarded as a linear model. ANN and SVM regression show high degree of agreement with the mathematical model. This study provides a theoretical foundation for the development of data-driven tool for optimizing real-time TMS control strategies.
Pan, Shiyi, Zhang, Nan, Zheng, Junli, Sun, Tianfu, Zidi, Li
Technical Paper
Modeling and Simulation Analysis of Thermal Management System for Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicle2025-01-709101/31/2025
An effective vehicle integrated thermal management system (ITMS) is critical for the safe and efficient operation of proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) vehicles. This paper takes a fuel cell vehicle (FCV) as the research object, comprehensively considers the vehicle layout environment and thermal management requirements, and designs a complete thermal management system for FCV. The key components are selected and designed to match the performance and the control strategy of ITMS of fuel cell vehicle is developed. To do that, the ITMS model is established based on the heating principle and heat transfer theory of each key component. Then, the ITMS under Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicles Test Cycle (WLTC) operating conditions at different ambient temperatures are simulated and analyzed by selecting indicators such as coolant flow rate and temperature. Under the ambient temperature of 40°C, the temperature of PEMFC is basically stable between 78 °C and 83°C, the coolant outlet
Jiang, Qi, Xiong, Shusheng, Wang, Yupeng, Zhu, Shaopeng, Chen, Huipeng
Technical Paper
Thermal Management of Air-Cooled PEMFC: Machine Learning-Based Warm Starting of Active Set Methods in Model Predictive Control2025-01-707101/31/2025
This paper proposes a method that speeds up the Model Predictive Control (MPC) algorithm in the thermal management system of air-cooled Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC), with an integration of machine learning and Active Set Method (ASM) of quadratic programming. Firstly, the parameters of the electrochemical model and mass transfer model of PEMFC are identified by swarm intelligence algorithms such as particle swarm algorithm and bat algorithm, and a semi-empirical model that can simulate actual dynamics is established. Based on this, a model predictive controller based on Active Set Method (ASM) is designed, and the optimization solution algorithm is optimized to solve the problem of slow and poor real-time performance. Combined with machine learning methods such as K-nearest neighbor algorithm and support vector machine, the warm start of the optimization solution algorithm is realized to improve the solution efficiency. The results show that using the warm-start MPC
Lv, Hang, Chen, Fengxiang, Pei, Yaowang
Technical Paper
Optimization of Low-Temperature Fast-Charging Strategy for Power Battery of Pure Electric Heavy-Duty Truck2025-01-701801/31/2025
In cold environments, it is slow and risky for charging rate of electric heavy-duty trucks due to lithium plating. Common heating-charging methods overlook the complex dynamics between current, temperature, and battery aging, which need to be further improved. This study presents a tailored thermal management strategy for low-temperature battery charging, analyzing heating performance and battery improvement effect on the fast-charging performance. The data-driven multi-tiered power heating strategy based on a customer electro-thermal-aging model was proposed to minimize charging time and costs. The heating power combinations have been optimized by a particle swarm optimization algorithm, which outperforms conventional methods that aim to reach a set temperature. The optimized strategy reduced charging time by 11% and battery life degradation by only 0.0512%, enhanced the efficiency of cold-weather fast charging for electric trucks.
Lin, Jiewei, Jiang, Feifan, Dai, Huwei, Sun, Lei, Liu, Baoguo, Li, Shibo, Zhang, Junhong
Technical Paper
Structure Design and Performance Enhancement of Automobile Thermoelectric Generator System Integrated with a Spoiler2025-01-706601/31/2025
The thermoelectric generator system is regarded as an advanced technology for recovering waste heat from automotive exhaust. To address the issue of uneven temperature distribution within the heat exchanger that limits the output performance of the system, this study designs a novel thermoelectric generation system integrated with turbulence enhancers. This configuration aims to enhance convective heat transfer at the rear end of the heat exchanger and improve overall temperature uniformity. A multiphysics coupled model is established to evaluate the impact of the turbulence enhancers on the system's temperature distribution and electrical output, comparing its performance with that of traditional systems. The findings indicate that the integration of turbulence enhancers significantly increases the heat transfer rate and temperature uniformity at the rear end of the heat exchanger. However, it also leads to an increase in exhaust back pressure, which negatively affects system
Chen, Jie, Ding, Renkai, Wang, Ruochen, Liu, Wei, Luo, Ding
Technical Paper
Steady-State and Dynamic Characteristics of Secondary Loop CO 2 Thermal System for Electric Vehicles2025-01-700601/31/2025
With the rapid adoption of new energy vehicles (NEVs), effective thermal management has become a crucial factor for enhancing performance, safety, and efficiency. This study investigates the steady-state and dynamic characteristics of a secondary loop CO₂ (R744) thermal management system designed for electric vehicles. The secondary loop system presents several benefits, such as improved safety through reduced refrigerant leakage and enhanced integration capabilities with existing vehicle subsystems. However, these advantages often come at the cost of decreased thermodynamic efficiency compared to direct systems. Experimental evaluations were conducted to understand the effects of varying coolant flow rates, discharge pressure, and dynamic startup behaviors. Results indicate that while the indirect system generally shows a lower coefficient of performance (COP) than direct systems, optimization of key parameters like coolant flow rate and discharge pressure can significantly enhance
Zong, Shuo, He, Yifan, Guan, Yan, Dong, Qiqi, Yin, Xiang, Cao, Feng
Technical Paper
Fusion Control Strategy Based on Rule and Dynamic Objective of Heat Pump Type Thermal Management System for Electric Vehicles2025-01-702301/31/2025
Thermal management system of electric vehicles (EVs) is critical for the vehicle's safety and stability. While maintaining the components within their optimal temperature ranges, it is also essential to reduce the energy consumption of thermal management system. Firstly, a kind of architecture for the integrated thermal management system (ITMS) is proposed, which can operate in multiple modes to meet various demands. Two typical operating modes for vehicle cooling in summer and heating in winter, which utilizes the residual heat from the electric drive system, are respectively introduced. The ITMS based on heat pump enables efficient heat transfer between different components. Subsequently, an ITMS model is developed, including subsystems such as the battery system, powertrain system, heat pump system and cabin system. The description of modeling process for each subsystem is provided in detail. The model is tested under world light vehicle test cycle (WLTC) condition of six different
Zhao, Luhao, Tan, Piqiang, Yang, Xiaomei, Yao, Chaojie, Liu, Xiang
Technical Paper
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